en Mi
ee ee
PE Ee, 4 }
Oe
ta!
ef) }
neice AALS hy
j ‘ | { {
a AIO IE it 3 te rye EN ee
THEOLOGICAL WORDBOOK OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
Volume 1
R. Laird Harris, Editor Gleason L. Archer, Jr., Associate Editor
Bruce K. Waltke, Associate Editor
MOODY PRESS CHICAGO
© 1980 by THE Moopy BIBLE INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO
7 Printing/RM/Year 88 87
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repro- duced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in cnitical articles or reviews.
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament
Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Bible. O.T.—Dictionaries—Hebrew. 2. Bible. O.T.—Theology—Dictionaries. I. Harris, Robert Laird.
II. Archer, Gleason Leonard, 1916— III. Waltke, Bruce K. BS440.T49 221.4'4’0321 80-28047
ISBN 0-8024-8631-2 (set)
Printed in the United States of America
INTRODUCTION
The value of books for theological word study of the Old and New Testaments has long been recognized. W. E. Vine’s word studies are well-known in the New Testament field. The major work, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, is now being matched by an extensive Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, which will run into many volumes.
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament follows in this tradition, but approaches the matter from a practical and less exhaustive viewpoint than the major studies. The busy pastor or earnest Christian worker who has neither the time nor background for detailed technical study should yet have a tool for the study of the significant theological words of the Hebrew Bible. The editors and Moody Press are of the conviction that essential to the right under- standing of the theological terms of the Old Testament is a belief in the Bible’s truth. Spiritual things are ‘“‘spiritually discerned’’ (I Cor 2:14). Therefore, about thirteen years ago, they enlisted the help of some forty evangelical scholars who would write essay definitions of the important theological terms in the Old Testament that would be helpful to their brothers in the work of interpreting Scripture.
Word study does not lead to a total understanding of the Old Testament text—or any text. Words must always be taken in context. They have an area of meaning, thus ’4mar may sometimes mean ‘‘speak,’’ sometimes ‘‘command.”’ Thus, it overlaps with dabar on the one hand and sdwd on the other. Also, the etymologies of words are not always determinative of meanings. In English we use words every day that are of pagan origin but no longer bear any such connotation. We derive the names of our months from Roman deities and our weekdays from the Norse mythologies, but we believe in neither. The Hebrews also did not invent their language. It was used in Canaan before the Conquest. Therefore, some Hebrew words may be of Canaanite origin, which is not to suggest that the Hebrews used them with the original Canaanite connotation. Biblical usage is therefore the best criterion of the meaning of a word, and to that end our authors have depended heavily on their concordances. But usage is often limited, and all the evidence available was evaluated, we think judiciously. There will be differences of opinion among our readers as to some of the conclusions here presented. Such differences will arise in part from different viewpoints brought to bear on the subject. Obvi- ously these studies are neither complete nor final, but the editors and authors believe that the definitions given can be well defended. We hope that the work may result in the edification of the church of Christ through the assistance it may give to her ministers and His servants.
Often it was not easy to decide which words would be defined, and of those, which ones would receive lengthy discussion. In many cases, the decisions made could be questioned. Partly because of this and partly because of the convenience of having all the Old Testament words at least touched upon in one reference book, it was decided to include also the vocables not chosen for essay treatment and give them one-line definitions—usually following the lead of the long-time standard, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs.
It was decided not to include the Old Testament names, except for a few of special theolog- ical import, like Abraham, Jerusalem, Jordan, and so on. For the principles of name formation in the Hebrew world, one may. consult the work of Dr. Allan A. MacRae, ‘‘The Semitic Names in the Nuzi Tablets,’’ in Nuzi Personal Names, ed. I. J. Gelb, University of Chicago, 1943.
The bibliographies following many of the articles were supplied largely by the contributors, but the editors also attempted to supplement their material. Dr. Tom Finch, a recent graduate of Dallas Theological Seminary, combed leading theological journals of the past thirty years, especially those in English, for articles bearing on the meaning of the words under discussion.
iil
INTRODUCTION
The editors then checked those articles as to their applicability. Other sources have often been noted, such as the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (which has an index of Hebrew words discussed) and the Theologisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament. The Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament was not largely available.
The listing is arranged according to the consonants of the Hebrew alphabet (see *‘Sugges- tions for Use’’ for details). The Wordbook collects related words and defines nouns, adjec- tives, and so on, together with the root from which they are derived. Grouping together related words has the advantage of convenience and economy. It perhaps has a disadvantage of overemphasizing etymology above usage. It has a further disadvantage in that nouns with prefixes appear out of their alphabetical order. To obviate this problem, any word whose spelling differs from that of its root is listed in the proper alphabetical sequence with a numerical cross reference to the root. (Again, for details see ‘‘Suggestions for Use.’’)
In Hebrew, as is well known, most of the roots are verbs, and they are built on a tn- consonantal pattern. With only twenty-two consonants, a system of tri-consonantal roots is somewhat limited. The Hebrew vocabulary was far less than the rich English vocabulary of around 750,000 words. And the biblical vocabulary is only a percentage—an unknown percentage—of the words in use in the living language. Even so, some combinations of letters form one, two, or even more roots using the same consonants. These roots are marked as I, II, III, and so forth. Actually, the various authorities sometimes differ as to whether one root has two somewhat divergent meanings or whether two separate roots are involved. In such cases, the writers usually discuss the question.
The value of the Wordbook is largely due to the faithful work of the forty-six contributors who agreed to study the words assigned them and compress their study into the allowed format. Their articles are signed.
The contributors were asked to study their words from the viewpoint of biblical usage, etymological background, comparison with cognate languages, translations in the ancient versions, synonyms, antonyms, and theological significance. Also, they were to consider the use of their words in passages of special difficulty. Naturally, not all of those items were applicable to every word. And the writers felt the pressure of fitting their study into the narrow limitations of a two-volume book of this nature. Many things they would have liked to include could not be worked in. |
It should be explained that although the contributors held the same high view of the truthfulness of the Bible and the reliability of its text, they were of different denominational and exegetical traditions. The editors in general have allowed the writers to speak for them- selves. Some variations in treatment may therefore be expected. For instance, some use the name *‘Yahweh’’ for Israel’s God, some the word ‘‘Lord,’’ some ‘‘Jehovah.’’ (This matter is discussed under the possible root of the name, hdyd.) In a number of cases where a writer gave only one opinion on a particular question, the editors for the sake of completeness mentioned a different view. In cases of significance, these additions were submitted to the contributors and approved. In less significant cases, the editors themselves added such additional material, believing that it did not violate the integrity of the author. If in any such case, time and circumstances prevented conference and the authors’ views have not been fairly represented, the editors can only express sincere regret and hope that no harm has been done. In some cases when helpful additional material, perhaps speculative, or other views were available, the editors have added bracketed material with their own initials. a
All the articles were read by the editor. Also, the two associate editors each read about half of the articles. So all were double-checked. Final responsibility for what may be amiss rests with the editor.
The work has taken much longer than expected. Selecting authors and encouraging them to meet deadlines was a long process. A number of the authors, as well as the editors, were
iV
INTRODUCTION
heavily involved in the translation of the New International Version and gave it priority. But the contributors were careful and faithful, and the material in time became voluminous. We are indebted to Chrisona Peterson (now Mrs. Julian Schmidt), our copy editor, for her very extensive work in editing, styling, alphabetizing, cutting, pasting (ad infinitum), and proofreading. Dr. Tom Finch has already been mentioned in connection with his work on the bibliographies. Two students at Covenant Seminary, Jeffrey Weir and Ken Wolf, worked on the Index of Correspondence, between the numbers of the Wordbook and those of Strong’s Concordance, found at the back of the book. Moody Press and its representatives, first David R. Douglass, then William G. Crider, were most helpful and supportive at every turn. Finally, hearty thanks are due to the Xerox machine and the process of computer tape printing, which greatly assists in producing a book of complicated typography and considerable extent like this one.
With gratitude to the Lord for the completion of this work, we pray for His blessing upon it (Psalm 90:17).
R. Laird Harris Gleason J. Archer, Jr. Bruce K. Waltke
R.L.A.
R.H.A.
R.B.A.
G.L.A.
H.J.A.
A.B.
G.L.C.
G.G.C.
W.B.C.
L.J.C.
R.D.C.
C.L.F.
M.C.F.
P.R.G.
L.G.
V.P.H.
R.L.H.
CONTRIBUTORS
Entries are made in order of authors’ last names.
ALDEN, Robert, L., Ph.D., Profes- sor of Old Testament, Conservative Baptist Theological Seminary, Den- ver, Colorado
ALEXANDER, Ralph H., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Lan- guage and Exegesis, Western Con- servative Baptist Seminary, Port- land, Oregon
ALLEN, Ronald B., Th.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament Language and Exegesis, Western Conserva- tive Baptist Seminary, Portland, Oregon
ARCHER, Gleason L., Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament and Semi- tic Languages, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois AUSTEL, Hermann J., Ph.D., Dean, North West Baptist Semi- nary, Tacoma, Washington BOWLING, Andrew, Ph.D., As- sociate Professor of Bible and Reli- gion, John Brown’ University, Siloam Springs, Arkansas
CARR, G. Lloyd, Ph.D., Professor.
of Bible and Theological Studies, Gordon College, Wenham, Mass- achusetts
COHEN, Gary G., Th.D., Presi- dent, Clearwater Christian College, Clearwater, Florida
COKER, William B., Ph.D., As- sociate Professor of Bible, Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky COPPES, Leonard J., Th.D., Pas- tor, Harrisville, Pennsylvania CULVER, Robert D., Th.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament and He- brew, Winnipeg Theological Semi- nary, Otterburne, Manitoba, Canada
FEINBERG, Charles L., Th.D., Ph.D., Former Dean and Professor Emeritus of Semitics and Old Tes- tament, Talbot Theological Semi- nary, La Mirada, California FISHER, Milton C., Ph.D., Presi- dent and Professor of Old Testa- ment, Reformed Episcopal Semi- nary, Upper Darby, Pennsylvania . GILCHRIST, Paul R., Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Biblical Studies, Covenant College, Lookout Mountain, Ten- nessee
GOLDBERG, Louis, Th.D., Pro- fessor of Theology and Jewish Studies, Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, Illinois
HAMILTON, Victor P., Ph.D., Chairman of Division of Philosophy and Religion, Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky
HARRIS, R. Laird, Ph.D., Profes- sor of Old Testament, Covenant Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri
Vil
J.E.H.
C.D.I.
W.C.K.
E.S.K.
J.P.L.
G.H.L.
T.E.M.
A.A.M.
E.A.M.
J.N.O.
R.D.P.
J.B.P.
C.R.
J.B:S.
C.S.
E.B.S.
HARTLEY, John E., Ph.D., Chairperson, Division of Philoso- phy and Religion, Azusa Pacific College, Azusa, California ISBELL, Charles D., Ph.D., Former Associate Professor of Old Testament, Nazarene Theological Seminary, Kansas City, Missouri KAISER, Walter C., Ph.D., Dean and Chairman of the Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deer- field, Illinois
KALLAND, Earl S., Th.D., D.D., Professor Emeritus of Old Testa- ment and Former Dean of Conser- vative Baptist Seminary, Denver, Colorado
LEWIS, Jack P., Ph.D., Professor of Bible, Harding Graduate School of Religion, Memphis, Tennessee LIVINGSTON, G. Herbert, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament, As- bury Theological Seminary, Wil- more, Kentucky
MCCOMISKEY, Thomas _E., Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deer- field, Illinois
MACRAE, Allan A., Ph.D., Presi- dent and Professor of Old Testa- ment, Biblical School of Theology, Hatfield, Pennsylvania MARTENS, Elmer A., Ph.D., President and Professor of Old Tes- tament, Biblical Seminary, Fresno, California
OSWALT, John N., Ph.D., As- sociate Professor of Biblical Lan- guages and Literature, Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky | . PATTERSON, R. D., Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Old Testament, Grand Rapids ~ Baptist Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan PAYNE, J. Barton, Ph.D., Late Professor of Old Testament, Cov- enant Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri
ROGERS, Cleon, Th.D., Director, Freie Theologische Akademie, Seeheim, West Germany
SCOTT, Jack, B., Ph.D., Former Professor of Old Testament, Re- formed Theological Seminary, Jack- son, Mississippi
SCHULTZ, Carl, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament, Houghton Col- lege, Houghton, New York SMICK, Elmer B., Ph.D., Profes- sor of Old Testament, Gordon- Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Massachusetts
CONTRIBUTORS
J.E.S.
H.G.S.
G.V.G.
B.K.W.
M.R.W.
SMITH, James E., Th.D., Academic Dean and Professor of Old Testament, Central Florida Bible College, Orlando, Florida STIGERS, Harold G., Ph.D., Former Professor, Author, and Lecturer, Glendale, Missouri VAN GRONINGEN, — Gerard, Ph.D., President, Trinity Christian College, Palos Heights, Illinois WALTKE, Bruce K., Th.D., Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament, Regents College, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada WEBER, Carl Philip, Ph.D., Teacher, Letcher High School, Whitesburg, Kentucky
WHITE, William, Ph.D., Specialist in Biblical Languages, Warrington, Pennsylvania
WILSON, Marvin R., Ph.D., Pro- fessor of Biblical Studies, Gordon College, Wenham, Massachusetts
Vill
D.J.W.
L.W.
H.W.
L.J.W.
E.Y.
R.F.Y.
WISEMAN, Donald J., D. Lit., Professor of Assyriology, School of Oriental and African Studies, Lon- don, England
WALKER, Larry, Ph.D., Profes- sor of Old Testament and Hebrew, Mid-America Baptist Seminary, Memphis, Tennessee
WOLF, Herbert, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois WOOD, Leon J., Ph.D., Late Pro- fessor of Old Testament, Grand Rapids Bible Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan
YAMAUCHI, Edwin, Ph.D., Pro- fessor and Director of Graduate Studies, History Department, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio YOUNGBLOOD,- Ronald ., Ph.D., Associate Dean of Graduate School and Professor of Old Testa- ment, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
The Wordbook is essentially a Hebrew lexicon and can be used like any other Hebrew lexi- con. However, it has certain special features which are designed to facilitate its use, especially for those less at home in the Hebrew language. It is primarily intended to be a ready tool for the pastor and the serious student, who want to study carefully and understand more fully the sacred text.
Transliteration of the Hebrew Letters
One feature of the Wordbook is its use of transliteration of the Hebrew into English letters. This is not only in line with the practice in Ugaritic and Akkadian studies, but will doubtless be of assistance to the non-specialist to whom the Hebrew characters are unfamiliar. The system of transliteration used does not claim to be final or scientific; it is practical. Actually, there is not full agreement on early Hebrew pronunciation, the length and quality of its vowels, etc. But this system aims to give an English equivalent for every consonant; its vowel notation, too, gives a one-to-one equivalence which will allow the Hebrew to be fully reproduced from any trans- literated form. |
As is well known, only the consonants were written in early Hebrew and, in general, the con- sonants are of more importance in carrying the meaning of a Hebrew word while the vowels are more significant in marking the form. There are twenty-two consonants (twenty-three if Sin and Shin are distinguished) and most of these have a parallel in the English alphabet. The Hebrew letters Zayin, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Qoph, Resh and Shin are easily represented as the English letters z, 1, m, n, s, q, r, and sh. See the transliteration table.
There are six Hebrew consonants whose pronunciation may be ‘‘hard’’ or ‘‘soft.’’ These are the so-called Beghadh-Kephath letters, b, g, d, k, p, t: the Hebrew letters Beth, Gimel, Daleth, Kaph, Pe and Taw. When written with a hardening dot in the middle; these letters are pronounced like their English equivalents. If there is a vowel sound before them (and if they are not doubled) they are pronounced differently, but mean exactly the same thing (i.e. they differ phonetically, but not phonemically). Technically speaking, these six letters are stops, but they receive a frica- tive pronunciation, i.e. the point of articulation is not entirely closed, if a vowel sound precedes them. This variant pronunciation may be represented approximately as b/v, g/gh, d/th (as th in ‘*that’’), k/kh, p/f, and t/th (as th in ‘‘thin’’). Some systems of transliteration represent this varia- tion of these six stops. But since it makes no difference at all in the meaning of the words, it has been judged better to represent all these letters always by their sound as stops—the ‘‘hard’’ pro- nunciation. So Beth is always b; Gimel, g; Daleth, d; Kaph, k; Pe, p; and Taw, t. (In some sys- tems of transliteration the soft pronunciation is represented thus: bh, gh, dh, kh, ph, th; in others it is b, g, d, k, p, and t.)
Two consonants are called emphatics. Their ancient pronunciation 1s difficult to determine accurately, but the Teth is some kind of a ‘‘t’’ and the Tsadhe some kind of an ‘‘s.’’ They are represented as s and t respectively. (In some systems of transliteration the Tsadhe is written ‘*ts”’.)
Three more consonants have no equivalent in English. They are guttural sounds made in the larynx. They are usually represented thus: ’Aleph by an apostrophe (’), and ‘Ayin by a reverse apostrophe (‘), and Heth by ah. There is another kind of ‘*h’’ used in Ugaritic, Arabic and Akkadian, not in Hebrew, which is made with the tongue not quite against the roof of the mouth (technically a voiceless palatal fricative). This is represented, when it occurs, by h.
1X
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
A second ‘‘s’’ apparently was pronounced exactly like Samekh, ‘‘s,’’ though it looks like Shin (having a dot over the left upper corner instead of the right). To distinguish this letter Sin from the Samekh we use an acute accent over the Sin, thus: §.
The remaining three consonants He, Waw, and Yodh are sometimes pronounced and some- times silent, being used in conjunction with vowels. When they are pronounced, their pronuncia- tion is like that of their English equivalents, He, h; Waw, w; and Yodh, y. In some systems of transliteration the Waw is called Vav and pronounced ‘‘v’’ because of past German influence on Hebrew studies. If, however, these letters are used as vowels, the long vowel resulting is always (and only then) marked with a circumflex accent *. Examples will be given below.
All double consonants (those marked in Hebrew by a doubling dot in the middle of the letter) are simply written twice in the transliteration.
The consonantal transliterations may be listed as follows:
Aleph S : Beth 3 or 3 b Gimel 4 or 3 g Daleth Sor 4 d He (pronounced hay) m or ® (final consonantal 7) h Waw 5 w Zayin } Z Heth (or Het) a} h Teth Y t Yodh (or Yod) ’ y Kaph 230r 3 k Lamedh ? l Mem ore m Nun (pronounced noon) Jor] n Samekh D S Ayin y ; Pe (pronounced pay) » Dor > p Tsadhe Zor? S Qoph (English q, but not qu) 2 q Resh * r Sin (pronounced seen) w § Shin (pronounced sheen) "24 sh Taw hors t
There are thirteen full vowels in Hebrew and four half-vowels. Another sign, which marks the end of a syllable (the silent shewa) has no sound and is not marked in the present system. The transliterations of these vowels and also their pronunciation following the letter ‘‘m’’ are as follows: |
Pathah a a > ma as in man Qames 5 a ra ma as in ma Final Qames with vocalic He ae a Te ma as in ma Hiriq . 1 i) mi as in pin Hirig with Yodh * i ae) mi as ee in seen Seghol e r2 me as in met Sere : é iP) mé as ay in may Sere with Yodh 7 é ve) mé as ay In may
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE Qames-Hatuph (in closed syllable)
O Ie mo as au in naught Holem 6 2 mo as in mole * Holem with Waw 4 6 sta) m6 in mole Qibbus (short in closed syllable) ‘ u 2 mi oo in nook Shureq (always with Waw) | a ta) mt as oo in fool
Various other combinations of vowels and silent consonants are self-explanatory:
Qames with final consonantal He ae ah Te) mah Qames with final vocalic ’Aleph S a’ No ma’ Sere with final vocalic He ae éh mate) méh Seghol with final vocalic He ae eh air) meh
The half-vowels are all pronounced virtually alike—like ‘‘o’’ in Democrat:
Shewa e > me Hateph-pathah a te ma Hateph-seghol . E Ie mé Hateph-qames : 6 >» mo
A few examples of transliterated words are: 933 dabar, 35 débér, 7935 dob‘ra, "3135 dabir, “ata m&dabbér, 358 ’adubbar.
For those less familiar with the use of Hebrew in transcription, a little attention to the above tables will make the visualization of the equivalent Hebrew letters easy. For those less familiar with the Hebrew characters, the use of transcription will make the word studies fully usable.
It may here be added that the transliteration is the same for Aramaic and similar for Arabic, Ugaritic, and Akkadian. In Ugaritic and Arabic there are a few extra consonants: Ha, h for another kind of palatal ‘‘h’’ already mentioned; Ghain, g or § for another kind of ‘Ayin; d and d for other kinds of ‘‘d’’; z for another emphatic sibilant; and § often used for ‘*sh.’’ The system found in L.H. Gray, Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics (Columbia Univ., 1934) is followed.
The asterisk preceding a verbal root indicates that although this root is quoted in the Qal form, it only appears in the derived stems, Piel, Hiphil, etc.
The dagger before a word indicates that this word is specifically treated in the discussions of meaning below.
Finding Words in the Lexicon
In the standard Hebrew lexicon, Brown, Driver and Briggs (BDB) printed in 1905, the words are arranged under the roots from which they are derived. Thus for mizbéah ‘‘altar,’’ one must look under the verb zabah ‘‘to sacrifice.’’ In the more recent lexicons, like Koehler and Baum- gartner, the words are arranged alphabetically. So the word mizbéah is found under ‘‘m.”’ In the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, the advantages of both of these systems appear. The words, indeed, are arranged under the roots; the verbal root and the derived words are dis- cussed together. But all the derivatives are also listed in their proper alphabetical position with a convenient numerical cross reference to lead the user to the root verb where, if it is theologically important, a discussion of the meaning of the root verb and all its derivatives will be found.
XI
SUGGESTIONS FOR USE
An effort has been made to list alphabetically all the derivatives whose consonants differ from those of the verbal root even if their proper alphabetical position is close to the root itself. The exception to this practice is the treatment of feminine forms of masculine nouns, which end in ‘‘4.’’ These are given as derivatives in their proper place under their root verb, but they are not usually cross referenced if there is a corresponding masculine form. Thus, "3a?3 (mdgér) from 333 (gir), no. 332, will be found under ? ‘‘m”’ and will have a cross reference, no. 332a under gur no. 332. But the feminine form 7552? (m°gdrda) does not have a cross reference. It will be found by looking for 553?3 (magér) no. 332a which refers to the root no. 332 under which both the masculine and feminine nouns appear. Nouns with consonants identical to the verb are not cross referenced.
In the alphabetical arrangement, the vowels are completely disregarded, except that the vowel letters He, Waw, and Yodh are treated as consonants. For instance, Ma is followed by 3". then M372 then 357) PIV ATID AINe and Myo Ts
Note that in the transcription, the letters with circumflex always include the Hebrew vowel letters, He %, Waw 3, or Yodh ° and these letters are considered in the alphabetization; but the vowels without vowel letters are not considered. The doubling of letters also is not considered in the alphabetic arrangement. Of course, the order of the Hebrew alphabet as given above in the transliteration chart is the one followed. . |
In Hebrew there is considerable freedom in writing the Holem with Waw (full writing) or without Waw (defective writing). The same applies to the Hiriq with or without the Yodh. In most cases, both forms are given and are alphabetized accordingly in two different places. Sometimes, however, if the variant spelling is quite minor it may have been overlooked. So if, for instance, "$f Adr is not found under Heth, Waw and Yodh, it would be advisable to look under "m hor where it does appear. Remember always that to find a word in the Hebrew alphabetiza- tion that has been transcribed into English, it is necessary to consider only the consonants, but this includes the vowel letters which are indicated by the circumflex. Thus, m*gd6ra, mentioned above, would be alphabetized under Mem ‘‘m,’’ Gimel ‘‘g,’’ Waw ‘‘w,’’ Resh “‘r,’’ and He *‘h.”’
In cases where there is a difference in the Hebrew text between the written consonants (the Kethib) and the vowels attached (the Qere), both forms are not always noted, but an effort has been made to list one or the other reading.
All of the biblical Hebrew vocables are included in the Wordbook. Those judged for one reason or another to be of theological significance are given essay-type definitions. The rest, on which there is no special disagreement or theological question, are given one-line definitions, usually following BDB. Proper names of people or places are not included except in cases like Abraham, Jerusalem, Jordan where there is special theological interest. It is not, perhaps, necessary to apologize for the brevity of the definitions. Scholars who wish to do extensive research on indi- vidual words will want to look elsewhere, and the bibliographies usually appended should give some assistance. But the Wordbook is already large enough to fulfill its purpose—to help the serious Bible student and pastor in his work of interpreting the Word of God. Valuable material for further study of Hebrew words may be found in Kittel’s Theological Dictionary of the New Testament and Colin Brown’s New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Both of these works have indexes to the Hebrew words treated at various places.
In order to make the material in the Wordbook more accessible, there is a numerical index at the back which correlates the numbers of the Hebrew words as given in Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible with the numbers of the roots and derivatives as given in the Word- book. If a word is being studied in any verse of the Old Testament, that word can easily be found in Strong and its Hebrew number noted. Then one may enter the index at the back of the Word- book and find the number used in the Wordbook listing and easily turn to it. For further details, consult the heading of the Index. The Strong numbers of names are normally omitted, but the
Xi
SUGGESTIONS. FOR USE
Strong entries marked ‘‘Chaldee’’ (i.e. Aramaic) are listed. They all are found in the Aramaic
section in the back of the Wordbook. In a work of this nature perfection is unattainable. The comparison with Strong even brought
to light misprints remaining after years of use and many reprintings. But an effort has been made to proofread the Wordbook carefully. As errors and omissions are brought to our attention they will be corrected in future printings.
Xill
AB
Al
AisWUS
ANET
ABBREVIATIONS
adjective
adverb Akkadian Aramaic
Biblical Aramaic circa (about) confer (compare) chapter feminine
Greek
Hebrew imperfect imperative
Old Testament Gen Ex Lev Num Deut Josh Jud Ruth
I Sam II Sam I Kgs II Kgs I Chr II Chr Ezr Neh Est Job Ps Prov Eccl Song
General Abbreviations
inf. inf.abs.
inf. const.
MS, MSS
Books of the Bible
Isa Jer Lam Ezk
New Testament Mt
Mk
Lk
Jn
Books and Journals
Anchor Bible (cited by author and AOOT
book)
Roland deVaux, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, trans. 1961
ASV
J. Aistleitner, Worterbuch der ugari- tischen Sprache, 4th ed., 1974 BA
Ancient Near Eastern Texts, ed. J. BASOR
Pritchard, 3d rev. ed. 1969
XV
infinitive
infinitive absolute infinitive construct manuscript (s) masculine
opus citandum (previously cited) participle
perfect
plural
quod vide (which see) singular
Ugaritic
verse (S)
Acts Rom I Cor II Cor Gal Eph Phil Col I Thess II Thess - I Tim II Tim Tit Phm Heb Jas I Pet II Pet I Jn II Jn III Jn Jude Rev
K. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the Old Testament, 1966
American Standard Version of the Bible
Authorized (King James) Version of the Bible
Biblical Archaeologist
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
ABBREVIATIONS
BDB
BETS
Bib BL
Brown, Driver, Briggs, A Hebrew-Eng- lish Lexicon of the Old Testament, 1905
Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society (later the Journal)
Biblica
H. Bauer and H. Leander, Historische Grammatik der hebradischen Sprache des A. T., 1922
Bibliotheca Sacra
Beitrage zum Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Orien- tal Institute of the Univ. of Chicago, 19S6ff.
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. X. L. duFour, 1967
Dead Sea Scrolls
A. B. Davidson, Theology of the Old Testament, 1904
Evangelical Quarterly
W. Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Tes- tament, I, II, trans. 1965
The Expositor
The Expository Times
W. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity, rev. ed. 1957
W. Gesenius, F. Buhl, Hebrdisches und aramdisches Handworterbuch, 17th ed. 1915
W. Gesenius, E. Kautzsch, A. Cow- ley, Hebrew Grammar, 2d English ed., 1910
W. Holladay, Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testa- ment, 1971
Hastings Dictionary of the Bible, 1911
R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 1969
Hebrew Union College Annual
Interpreter’s Bible
International Critical Commentary (cited by author and book)
Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. G. Buttrick, 1962
Israel Exploration Journal
International Standard Bible Encyclo- pedia, ed. J. Orr, 1929
Journal of the American Oriental So- clety
Journal of the Society of Biblical Lit- erature and Exegesis
Journal of Bible and Religion
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society (formerly Bulletin)
Journal of Near Eastern Studies
Jewish Quarterly Review
Journal of Semitic Studies
JTOT KAI
KB
KD
KJV LAP
Lis
LXX
Moscati
XVI
E. Jacob, Theology of the Old Testa- ment, 1958
H. Donner and W. Rollig, Kanaan- Gische u. aramdische Inschriften, I, II, III 1964-66
L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Lex- icon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, 2d ed., Eng.-Ger., 1958
K. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament
King James Version of the Bible
J. Finegan, Light from the Ancient Past, rev. ed., 1959
G. Lisowsky, Koncordanz zum heb- rdischen Alten Testament, 2d ed., 1958
The Septuagint Version of the Old Tes- tament in Greek
S. Moscati, An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semi- tic Languages, 1964
The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible
New American Standard Version of the Bible
New Bible Commentary, 2d ed., ed. F. Davidson, A. Stibbs, E. Kevan, 1954
New Bible Dictionary, ed. J.. Douglas, 1962
New English Bible
New International Version of the Bible
New Testament Studies
Orientalia
G. Oehler, Theology of the Old Testa- ment, rev. trans. G. E. Day, 1883, repr. Zondervan
Old Testament Studies
Palestine Exploration Quarterly
J. B. Payne, Theology of the Older Testament, 1962
Princeton Theological Review
Revue Biblique ,
L. Fisher, Ras Shamra Parallels, I, I, 1972-75 |
Revised Standard Version of the Bible
A. Richardson, Theological Word Book of the Bible, 1950
Scottish Journal of Theology
R. Girdlestone, Synonyms of the Old Testament, their Bearing on Chris- tian Doctrine, 1897, repr. Eerdmans
G. Archer, Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 2d ed., 1974
H. Botterweck and H. Ringren, Theological Dictionary of the O. T.., I-III, 1974ff.
E. Jenni u. C. Westermann, Theologi- sches Handbuch zum Alten Testa- ment
ThT TOT
TS UT
Vos,BT vRTOT
vS.AkkH VT
Vulg
Theology Today
Theology of the Old Testament (author specified for different titles)
Theological Studies
C.H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, 1965 (Grammar cited by chapter and sec- tion; texts cited by chap (16) and no. of line. Glossary cited by chap (19) and no. of word)
G. Vos, Biblical Theology, 1948
G. von Rad, Theology of the Old Tes- tament, Eng. ed. I, II, 1962-65
W. vonSoden, Akkadisches Handwor- terbuch
Vetus Testamentum (Supplements, Supp VT)
The Vulgate version of the Bible in Latin
WBC WBE
WJT YBIs
YGC ZAW
Zor
ZPEB
XVII
ABBREVIATIONS
Wycliffe Bible Commentary, ed. C. Pfeiffer and E. Harrison, 1962
Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, ed. C. Pfeiffer, H. Vos, J. Rea, 1975
Westminster Theological Journal
E. J. Young, The Book of Isaiah, vols. I, U, WI, 1965-72.
W. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, 1968
Zeitschrift fir alttestamentliche Wis- senschaft
F. Zorrell and L. Semkowski, Lexicon hebraicum et aramaicum V. T., 1940ff.
Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, ed. M. Tenney, Zondervan, I-V, 1975
I
28 (ab). See no. 4a. SN ('éb). See no. la. 38 ('6b). See no. 37a. 338 (‘bb). Assumed root of the following. la 38 ('éb) freshness, fresh green. Ib t3°a8 (abib) barley. ’abib. Barley. This noun refers to barley that
is already ripe, but still soft, the grains of which are eaten either rubbed or roasted (KB). The asv and RSV agree (but see Lev 2:14). The seventh plague brought ruinous hail upon Egypt's barley crop at least two weeks before it was fully ripened and ready for harvest (Ex 9:31). Abib was also the early name (later, Nisan) of the first month of the Jewish calendar (the month of Passover). In that month the barley came to ear, but the usual time of harvest was the second month (Ilyyar). According to Lev 2:14 the grain offering was to consist of the firstfruits of ‘a@bib. This root occurs ten times. Bibliography: Smick, E. B., “‘Calendar.” tn WBE. Lod.
2 338 (‘abad) perish, be destroyed; Piel and
Hiphil destroy.
Derivatives
2a =o%38 ('6béd) destruction (Num 24:20, 24 only).
2b =6MISN ('abéda) lost thing (e.g. Deut 22:3; Ex 22:8).
2c 338 ('abdan) destruction (Est 8:6; 9:5).
2d 1538 (‘aGbaddén) — destruction, ruin, Abaddon.
The verb ‘dbad is a common word for to die, or, in the case of things, reputation, etc., to pass away. (The cognates in Akkadian, Arabic, and Ugaritic express similar ideas.) In the Piel and Hiphil it is used transitively in the sense of kill or break down (houses, idols, kingdoms). Egypt was destroyed (Ex 10:7: KJv, NASB; “ruined,” RSV, NIV) though Pharaoh would not admit it. Joshua warned that if Israel sinned they would soon perish from the land (Josh 23:16). Jonah's gourd came up in a night and penshed in a night (Jon 4:10). The foolish and senseless people per- ish (Ps 49:10 (H 11]). The man without under- standing will perish like the beasts (Ps 49:20 [H 21)).
Probably the main theological question about this root is whether it refers merely to physical
death or also to eternal punishment. It is not an easy question. Obviously the word usually refers to some great loss, in most cases death. Esther's famous self-dedication, “If I perish. ] perish” (4:16), had her self sacrificing death in view— only that. ;
The verses that may look beyond the grave to further affliction for the wicked may be listed: Ps 49:10 [H 11]: cf. vv. 12, 20 (H 13, 21]): 73:27 (cf. vv. 18. 19); 83:17 [H 18]; Prov 10:28; 11:7 (cf. 24:20): and Ezk 28:16. These verses, like many others, can be interpreted to refer only to death of the body. But they are in a context of consid- eration of the hereafter. One's conclusion will doubtless be influenced by general considera- tions. If the ot “has no belief in any life beyond the grave worthy of the name,’ as N. Snaith says (DIOT, p. 89), then these verses will not be pressed to speak of eternal destruction of the wicked. But if immortality is found repeatedly in Ps, Prov, etc. as M. Dahood argues, then they may (See Psa/ms, Ill, in AB, pp. xli-lti and Smick, E. B., in Bibliography).
Psalms 49 and 73 are frequently cited as refer- ring to a future life. Psalm 49:15 (H 16] uses the significant phrase “he will take me,” the verb used for Elijah’s translation to heaven and also used in Ps 73:24, “take me to glory.” It is not far-fetched therefore to think that terms like ‘perish, (‘abad or damda II q.v.), or ‘their tombs their houses forever’ or ‘‘decay in the grave’ (NIV) or “death will feed on them™’ may well refer to everlasting destruction. Psalm 83:17 [H 18] 1s perhaps not as clear as the others, but the emphasis on the total overthrow of the wicked is impressive. Ezekiel 28:16, if it refers as many think to Satan who inspired the prince of Tyre, does not bear on the punishment of the wicked, but on Satan himself. He who once walked in the holy mountain of God, in the midst of the stones of fire will be disgraced (halal) and destroyed (‘abad) and in the process removed from (min) the mountain of God and the stones of fire. It sounds like eternal punishment.
*abaddon. Destruction, Abaddon. This word is transliterated in Rev 9:11 and used as the Hebrew name of the devil, called in Greek Apollyon. This usage is not identical with the oT usage, but is an interesting commentary on it. The word is used six times in the oT. Twice it is in parallel with sh©'él (q.v.), (Prov 15:11; 27:20) and once with qeber ‘grave’ (Ps 88:11 [H 12]). The sixth time (Job 31:12) the word stands alone. It ts obvious that the word refers to the destruction of the grave, but the contexts are not clear enough to
3 mD8 (aba)
prove that it refers to eternal destruction. The passages in Job and Prov are poetic personifica- tions and do not clearly refer to sinners more than to the righteous. Psalm 88 refers to the troubles of the Psalmist and though it is highly poetic, can hardly be referred to a place of torment. On such matters other passages must also be consulted (e.g. Job 27:13-23; Isa 66:22-24).
Bibliography: Heidel, A., ‘‘Death and the Af- terlife,’ in The Gilgamesh Epic, 2d ed., Univ. of Chicago, 1949, pp. 137-223. Harris, R. L., Man—God's Eternal Creation, Moody, 1971, pp. 162-177. Smick, E. B., **The Bearing of New Philological Data on the Subjects of Resurrection and Immortality inthe OT,’ WTJ 21:1, pp. 12-21.
R.L.H.
mas ('aba) I, accede to a wish, accept (a re- proach), want to, be willing, consent to (ASV and RSV similar except in cases where secondary implications predominate).
Derivatives
3a TSR) (ebvon) needy person.
3b MSN (('abiyOnd) caperberry.
3c =— MBN OC('@heh) reed, papyrus.
3d S38 «('ab6y) oh! (eytmology ous.)
dubi-
The primary meaning of this root is ‘‘the willingness (inclination) to do something under obligation or upon request.’* It is to be distin- guished from ndaddab which implies volunteering, rason denoting a willing pleasurable to the doer. hapas implying a compliance suiting what is fit- ting, or a favorable disposition, and vd'al indicat- ing an exertion of one’s will to do something. Also, compare ‘dwd, va@'ab, and ta'ab. Our root occurs 112 times. The verbal form occurs only in the Qal and al] but twice with a negative particle (Isa 1:19; Job 39:9). Because in some cognate languages the root means “‘to be unwilling,’ G. J. Botterweck concludes that “the primary em- phasis here 1s not on the intention as a psycholog- ical factor in the inner man (cf. ‘a@wd, usually with nepesh as subject!) but on the main be- havioral patterns and actions in which the inten- tion is manifested”’ (TDOT, I, p. 24). But possi- bly the cognates are only showing a polarity of meaning.
The basic meaning of the verb is set forth in those two cases where it is used positively (perhaps originally only with negative significa- tion, B. Johnson, TDOT, I, pp. 24-26). Job 39:9 speaks of a wild ass whose natural inclination is to refuse man’s service. In Isa 1:19, Israel is urged to show a positive intention toward God and not to ‘refuse’ (md'an) and “‘rebel”’ (mara), Isa 1:20. Here, as often elsewhere, ‘aha
occurs with shama’. Botterweck contrasts the two: “The difference seems to be that ‘aba de- notes the first beginnings of a positive reaction, whereas shama‘ indicates complete obedience” (TDOT, I, p. 25).
The idea of exercising the will is expressed when one 1s asked to acquiesce to another's re- quest (e.g. in I] Sam 13:25, David is not willing to go with Absalom). Another dimension is added in cases where the will is exercised against God's law or command (Ex 10:27; II Sam 13:14). Fi- nally, the refusal to comply may carry overtones of perversity as when Israel will not hearken to God (Isa 30:9) in spite of his warning in Lev 26:21. The refusal of the people is summed up in the words, ‘“‘but you would not” (Deut 1:26; Isa 30:15; ef. Mt 23:37).
This word is also used of God's unwillingness to destroy his people owing to his love for promi- nent men of faith (e.g. Moses, David, Deut 10:10; II Kgs 8:19; 13:23), and of his unwillingness to pardon them when his love and patience are repeatedly spurned (II Kgs 24:4).
Most interesting ts Deut 2:30. Sihon will not let Israel pass. The scripture enigmatically explains that this unhampered exercise of his will is due to God's having hardened his heart in order to de- liver him into Israel's hand.
*ebyon. One in the state of wanting, a needy or poor person. The etymology is uncertain. Asv and rsv translate similarly. ‘ebyén emphasizes **need’’ and thus is to be distinguished from ‘oni afflicted,’ dal ‘poor, and rash **weak’’ (the Qal participle of rish “‘destitute’’). This noun has a questionable connection with Ugaritic ‘hyn(t). Some scholars say ‘ebydén is of Egyptian deriva- tion (Paul Humbert, Revue de Il’ Histoire des Re- ligions, 32. 1, pp. 1-6), and others of general Semitic derivation (G. J. Botterweck, “‘ebyon,” in JDOT, 1, pp. 27-41).
The ‘ebyén is poor in a material sense. He may have lost his ancestral land (Ex 23:11). It may be that he has reverted to borrowing (Deut 15:7, 9, 11). He may be the recipient of special gifts on Purim (Est 9:22). He may be without clothing (Job 31:19) or lacking food (Ps 132:15). Certainly, used in this sense of material want the ‘‘poor’’ is one who has fallen on hard times (Job 30:25).
This noun is used socially of those needing pro- tection. In the Mosaic legislation God provides protection for the needy among his people by commanding that they be treated fairly and that payment of loans should be forgiven them in the year of release (Deut 15:1-4). God commands his people to loan liberally to the needy (Deut 15:7, 9, 11) inspite of the release. And if a brother sells himself into slavery to pay his debts, he is to serve as a hired man only until the year of jubilee when he would go out free and return to the
property of his fathers (Lev 25:39-41). Finally, God himself helps the righteous needy when there is no other helper (I Sam 2:8; Job 5:15; Ps 132:15; note the description of their plight in Job 24:2-14).
This social sense is found throughout the OT. In Prov the needy are those oppressed by the wicked (30:14). The king is to minister justice for them (31:9), and the good woman sees to their need (31:20). In the prophets (Jer, Ezk, Amos) the needy are those who are oppressed (contrary to Mosaic legislation) by the wicked (Amos 4:1) or who receive just treatment from the godly (Jer 22:16). Amos especially has a major concern for their rights. Cf. further Amos 2:6; 5:12; 8:4, 6). King Josiah is praised because ‘‘he judged the cause of the poor and needy” (Jer 22:16).
Isaiah refers to the needy as the firstborn (fa- vored ones) of God. He tells us that God is their stronghold (Isa 25:4). The psalms (where thirty- three of the sixty occurrences appear) usually use the word in the sense of the righteous whose des- titution is caused by enemies and who see their help in God alone. Hence, David can describe himself as needy (Ps 9:18 {H 19]; 86:1). The needy are the godly who walk uprightly (Ps 37:14). God's true spiritual people are the needy (Ps 72:4) who are oppressed by the wicked (Ps 12:5 [H 6]) within Israel and whose stronghold is God himself (Ps 109:31). Consequently, they cry to God for help (Ps 12:5 [H 6]; 70:5 [H 6]), and he delivers them (Ps 40:17 [H 18]).
Psalm 72:12 represents the Messiah as the ful- filler of God's promise to help the needy (cf. Isa 29:19).
Bibliography: FFensham, F. Charles, ‘*Wid- ow, Orphan, and Poor in Ancient Near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature,” JNES 21: 129- 39. Honeyman, A. M., ““Some Developments of the Semitic Root “by,” JAOS 64: 81-82. Lambdin, Thomas O., *‘Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament,’ JAOS 73: 145-55. Patter- son, Richard D., **The Widow, the Orphan, and the Poor in the Old Testament and the Extra- Biblical Literature,’ BS 130: 223-34. Richardson, TWB, p. 168. Van der Ploeg, J., ‘‘Les Pauvres d'Israel et leur Piéte,” OTS 7: 237-42. Ward, William A., ‘Comparative Studies in Egyptian and Ugaritic,”’ JNES 20: 31-40. TDOT, I, pp. 24-41. THAT, I, pp. 20-24.
) Oa Ge
4 sss (bh) Il. . Assumed root of the following.
4a t38 ('ab) father, forefather. asv, RSV similar, except that bér ’ab ‘‘father’s house,’’ may be rendered ‘‘family.”’
4b Bmass (abraham) Abraham, ‘father of a multitude.”
*ab. Father, forefather. This primitive noun apparently is derived from such baby sounds as
4 38 (’bh)
abab (cf. *‘Papa,” in TDNT, V, p. 960), rather than from the verbal root ‘bh, Assyrian, abi ‘*decide’’ (suggesting that the father is the ‘‘de- cider,’” BDB, p. 3). It designates primarily **be- getter,’ though by extension, ancestor, and metaphorically, an originator, chief, or associate in some degree.
The noun ’a@) occurs 1191 times in the Hebrew OT, plus nine times in the Aramaic (the form ‘abi, Job 34:36, kKjv “‘my desire,’ is probably a verb, “I desire,” from bayad, KB, cf. asv, ‘*would that’’). Most instances refer to a literal father (from Gen 2:24, even before the fact of paternity, 4:1, down to Mal 1:6); but ’@b may designate any man who occupies a position or receives recognition similar to that of a father: the “‘father’’ of a servant is his master (JI Kgs 2:12); *‘a father to the poor’ (Job 29:16) is their protector; ‘‘a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem” (Isa 22:21) is their governor; and ‘‘a father to Pharaoh”’ (Gen 45:8) 1s his advisor. The title **Father’* is thus used for one in authority (If Kgs 2:12), whether prophet (II Kgs 6:21), priest (Jud 18:19), or king (1 Sam 24:11 [H 12]), or even—as a personification—the grave, *‘Thou art my father™’ (Job 17:14).
In other passages ‘ab refers to a grandfather (Gen 28:13; 32:9 [H 10]) or more remote ancestor (Gen 10:21; I Kgs 15:11; cf. Ex 10:6, ‘fathers’ fathers’), especially if founding a tribal unit, e.g. Abraham as the father of the Hebrews (Deut 26:5; Isa 51:2; Jn 8:39), although Jacob is proba- bly their ‘‘first forefather [who] sinned” (Isa 43:27; cf. v. 28 and cf. McKenzie, J., Second Isaiah, in AB, p. 59). If aclan congregated in one area, its ancestor could then be called, for exam- ple, the father of Tekoa or of Hebron (1 Chr 2:24, 42). From this it was but a step to father as the founder of a group or guild, e.g. ‘‘the father of all who play the lyre and pipe’ (Gen 4:21).
So Yahweh became the Father of Israel his son (Isa 63:16) when he formed the nation (Isa 64:8 {H 7]; Deut 32:18). Yet his fatherhood concerns primarily that covenantal, saving relationship, in which he loved Israel (Hos 11:1; Jer 31:20), ‘‘bought”’ them by redemption from Egypt (Deut 32:6), and continued to remember his ‘‘firstborn son’ (Ex 4:22; Jer 31:9) with providentia!l direc- tion and fatherly care (Jer 31:9-10). He shows particular paternal concern for the fatherless (Ps 68:5 [H 6]), the poor, and the afflicted (cf. Prov 22:22-23).
Apostates could even ‘‘say to [an idol made from] a tree, “You are my father’’’ (Jer 2:27). Occasionally the entire creation is related to God's fatherhood: his challenge to Job, *‘Has the rain a father?”’ (Job 38:28), suggests that, while man is not its ‘‘begetter, " God is (vv. 4—5, 25-27; cf. the Ugaritic El’s position as literal **father of mankind’’). Yet just as in the NT, the oT (apart
5 *338 ('dbak)
from the figurative “*children”’ in Jer 3:19) never speaks of a universal fatherhood of God toward men (cf. G. B. Stevens's concession, The Theol- ogy of the NT, p. 70; cf. p. 68). Malachi’s ques- tion, **Have we not all one father? hath not one God created us?™* (2:10), is directed to those who inherit *‘the covenant of our fathers.”
In a special sense David, Yahweh's anointed king over Israel and mediator of the Davidic cov- enant (Ps 89: 3, 28), appealed to God as his Father (v. 26 [H 27]); and the Lord replied, ‘I will make him my firstborn, the highest of the kings of the earth”: (v. 27 [H 28]). But just as the next verse speaks of David’s “‘seed... to endure forever. so the words, **I will be his Father, and he will be my son” (II Sam 7:14), refer to David (v. 12), and Solomon (v. 13a; I Chr 22:10a):; but also they look beyond to the eternal Messiah (v. 135) and speak of the unique fatherhood of Yahweh to his Son Jesus Christ (Heb 1:5). Simi- larly in Ps 2:7 (and I Chr 22:105) the author David (Acts 4:25) sees beyond himself to God's future anointed one (Heb Messiah, Ps 2:2), the begotten Son of God. Christ would then, in turn, become an *‘eternal father’’ to his people (Isa 9:6, E. J. Young, New International Commentary, Isaiah, I, pp. 338-39).
But while Yahweh is to be ‘‘like a father... toward them that fear him™’ (Ps 103:13), i.e. to- ward the group of his ‘‘adopted {redeemed] sons, 1s he father also to the individual believer, as in the NT (Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6)? Jeremiah 3:4 says, “‘My Father, thou art the guide of my youth’’; but this may well be the personified na- tion speaking (cf. H. Schultz’ assertion of *‘noth- ing higher till the NT,’ OT Theology, II, p. 138). Yet individualization does appear in Ps 27:10, ‘‘When my father and mother forsake me, then the Lord will take me up” (cf. David's personal faith, I Sam 30:6; Ps 23), or in Prov 3:12, ““Whom the Lord loves he reproves, even as a father the son in whom he delights.”’ The infrequency of the divine name *‘Father’’ in the oT may have been due to its abuse in Canaanitish fertility cults (O. Baab, The Theology of the OT, p. 123, citing Jer 2:27; TDNT, V, p. 968).
Among the oT's proper nouns that employ the element ‘ah, the most famous is Abraham, though at his call he bore the shorter name, Abram (‘abradm, Gen 11:26—12:1), literally, ‘Father [God] (is) lofty." But when Yahweh es- tablished his covenant with Abram (17:1-2), he said, ‘Your name will be Abraham ('abrahadm), for I will make you the father of a multitude, (‘ab-hdmén) of nations’’ (v. 5). Some propose that the root rdham is no more than a variant of ram “to be lofty’’ (E. A. Speiser, in AB, Genesis, pp. 124, 127). But in light of the known Arabic noun ruhdmun, ‘‘multitude’’ (KB, p. 8), the change in meaning which the verse itself
5
6 %38% (abal) I,
teaches should be upheld. It thereby shifts the application of ‘ab from God to Abraham, who hereafter becomes ‘“‘father™ of the faithful, both in respect to his subjective attitude (of faith, Gal 3:7; Rom 4:16) and his objective inheritance (of righteousness, Gal 3:29; Rom 4:11, 13). Bibliography: Anderson, K. T., ‘‘Der Gott meines Vaters,” Studia Theologia 16: 178-88. Albright, W. F., ‘“‘Abraham the Hebrew: A New Archaeological Interpretation,« BASOR 163: 36-54, ____, **The Names Shaddai and Ab- ram, JBL 54: 173-204. Cross, Frank Moore, ‘*Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs,"° HTR 55: 226-59. Eitan, I., *“‘Two Onomatological Studies,” JAOS 49: 30-33. Gibson, J. C. L., ‘‘Light from Mari on the Patniarchs,’* JSS 7: 44-62. LaGrange, M. J., ‘‘La Paternite de Dieu dans !'AT,”’ RB 5: 481-99. Lehman, Manfred R., ‘**Abraham’'s Purchase of Machpelah and Hittite Law, BASOR 129: 15-18. Payne, J. B., Theol- ogy of the Older Testament, Zondervan, 1962, pp. 304-307; 425-26. Pope, Marvin H., El in the Ugaritic Texts, Supp VT 3: 1-116, esp. p. 47f. Richardson, TWB, pp. 12, 76. Stoger, A., ‘**Father,’’ Sacramentum Verbi, 1, 1970, pp. 260-65. Williams, James G., ‘*‘The Prophetic ‘Father’,’’ JBL 85: 34448. Wright, G. E., *‘The Terminology of Old Testament Religion and its Significance,’ JNES 1: 404-14. Young, E. J., ‘The God of the Fathers,’’ WTJ 3: 24-40, TDNT, V, pp. 929-82. TDOT, I, pp. 1-18, 52-58. THAT, I, pp. 1-16. J.B.P.
“38 (‘abéy). See no. 3d. See no. 10a.
See no. 234a.
CIsN (bits). DYMBss ('dbattihim). 3°38 (‘abib). See no. la.
See no. 3a. See no. 3b.
“38 (‘abir), 38 (abbir). See nos. 13c,d.
WSN (‘ebydn). M38 (‘abiyona).
*938 (‘dGbak) turn. Occurs only in the Hith- pael (Isa 9:17; Jud 7:3).
mourn, lament. (ASV and RSV similarly, but more uniformly while RSV occasionally reads
translate **mourn, ” ‘‘grieve.’’)
Derivatives
6a +938 ('ébel) mourning. 6b %S8 ('abél) I, mourning, er; cf. Ugaritic.
mourn-
‘Gbal describes mourning nites for the dead, though often, in its thirty-nine occurrences, it 1s used figuratively, ““The land mourneth” (Isa 24:4). Some propose a separate meaning, ‘‘to dry up,”’ when ‘dbal parallels yabésh (Jer 12:4; 23:10; Amos 1:2; KB, p. 6): but **mourning™ is contex- tually preferable (Jer 12:11).
Biblical mourning for the dead (expressed by ‘abal, sdpad, etc.) involved emotion, usually ex- pressed audibly (Jer 22:18; 48:36) and visibly (Gen 37:34; Ps 35:14; Mic 1:8), especially for the decease of important leaders (II Chr 35:24-25, Ezk 31:15). Professional mourning women could be hired (Jer 9:17; Eccl 12:5), or the emotion could be merely simulated (II Sam 14:2, ‘abal, Hithpael, “feign oneself a mourner”™’; Mt 11:17). Yet the ot forbad such pagan exhibitions as tear- ing one’s hair or flesh for the dead (Lev 19:28; 21:5; but see Jer 16:6; 41:5); for the oT gave an underlying assurance of immortality (Ps 73:24, Job 19:25-27; Prov 15:24) and held out the pros- pect of bodily resurrection (Ps 16:9-11; Isa 26:19; Dan 12:2).
’ébel. Mourning. ‘‘Mourning’ might last seven days (Gen 50:10; I Sam 31:13; cf. II Sam 11:27) or even seventy (Gen 50:3-4; thirty in Num 20:29; Deut 34:8). From the first incident arose the place-name Abel-mizraim: ‘abé/ the
mourning, misrayim, of Egypt (Gen 50:11). Bibliography: DeWard, Eileen F., **Mourning Customs in 1,2 Samuel,’ JJS 23: 1-27, 145-66. Tur-Sinai, N. H., ‘‘The Ark of God at Beit Shemesh (1! Sam. VI) and Peres ‘Uzza (2 Sam. VI; 1 Chron XIII),°° VT 1: 275-86. IDB, III, pp. 452-54. TDOT, I, pp. 44-47. THAT, I, pp. 27-30. J.B.P.
“38 ('b/) II. Assumed root of the following.
Ja t938 (Cabél) HH, stream, brook (KB, p.
6; cf. I] Chr 16:4, ’abél mayim, literally, stream of water), was once derived from an assumed root, abal Il **grow green” (7), suggesting ‘‘mead- ow ''(?) (BDB, p. 5), but is now associated with an Aramaic type of participial form of ydabal (q.v.) ‘‘to bring’ (W. F. Albright, BASOR 89:15); cf. Isa 30:25, yiblé mayim, literally, “ditches of water’’). ‘a@bél occurs solely in four Jordanian or Transjordanian place-names: Abel-beth-maacah (II Sam 20:14-15, 18; I Kgs 15:20 = Abel-maim, II Chr 16:4), Abel-shittim (Num 33:49), Abel- keramim (Jud 11:33, which kv translates ** plain of the vineyards’’), and Abel-meholah (7:22). (But see Jer 12:4; Amos 1:2; Jer 12:11, NIV.) ‘dbél, found in I Sam 6:18 should be read, with some Mss, ‘eben ‘‘stone’’ (cf. vv. 14-15), as found in Genesis 50:11. See ‘abél I.
J.B.P.
9 1358 (eben)
8 %°38 (‘Gbal) surely. Adverb. Cf. bal, no.
246d, which also may have asseverative force.
138 (eben) stone.
Derivative 9a 338 (oben) wheel, disk.
’eben. Stone. The meaning of ’eben is almost singularly ‘stone,’ and in the cognate Semitic languages both meaning and usage are the same. Stones are common in the middle east, and the word occurs more than 275 times in the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Bible. In all but a few places, which are cited below, the meaning is simply “stone.”
In its first occurrence, ‘eben refers to precious stones (Gen 2:12). The usual meaning of ‘eben hashshoham is “‘onyx stone,’ although *‘corne- lians’’ (NEB), lapis Jazuli (Torah and NaB), and others appear here and the half dozen other places where these two words come together. Our English word ‘“‘sapphire’’ reflects the He- brew sappir. This occurs with ‘eben in Ezk 1:26 and 10:1. An indication that the stone is valuable is the word millu’im, which basically means ‘‘full.”” But the derived meaning is ‘‘conse- crated.’’ Notice this combination in Ex 25:7, where if means a jewelry ‘‘setting, and else- where. Sometimes y"gdrd meaning “precious” or “‘costly’* modifies it (II Sam 12:30 et al.). In I Chr 29:2, which includes several of the above combinations, the modifiers pak and riqma, translated in the kJv as ‘‘glistening’’ and ‘‘of di- verse colours, appear. Others have ‘antimony ™’ and ‘‘colored”’ (Rsv), ‘‘coloured’* and **striped”’ (3B), “‘carnelian’’ and ‘“‘mosaic’’ (NAB). In Prov 17:8 is found the expression ‘eben hén, which is literally ‘stone of grace’’ and is usually rendered ‘‘precious’’ or the like. Isaiah 54:12 has two additional word combinations, ‘eben ‘eqdah and ‘eben hépes: ~‘carbuncles’’ and ‘‘pleasant stones’ (KJV), ““‘garnet’ and ‘‘jewels”’ (NEB), ‘“‘crystal’” and “precious stones” (JB). Ezekiel (28:14, 16) speaks of the ‘‘fire stone.’’ From the context (especially v. 13 with its ‘eben y“qara), this easily translated expression probably refers to a stone which sparkles. Even today diamonds are frequently described as fiery.
A second major category is ‘“‘stone’’ used in the natural state. Genesis 11:3 1s the first usage of the word as building material. Jacob used a stone pillow (Gen 28:11) and Moses sat on a stone (Ex 17:12). Stones were used to cover wells (Gen 29:2-3) and seal caves (Josh 10:18). Stones also served as pillars or cairns (Gen 31:45-46). Natur- ally, stones were used for throwing (Lev 20:2) and slinging (Jud 20:16).
The word ‘‘stone’’ is used as a title for God
10 DS ('abas)
(Gen 49:24, cf. sur ‘‘rock’’), and for the Messiah (Isa 28:16).
Stones were made into tablets for writing, as for the Ten Commandments (Ex 34:1), or into bowls (Ex 7:19). From stone the images of false deities were carved (Deut 28:36). The phrase ‘“hewn stone” (‘eben gazit, Ex 20:25) refers to stones which were dressed or squared off.
The word ‘eben is used to denote the charac- teristics it possesses. Exodus 15:5 refers to its weight and 15:16 to its motionlessness. Else- where its commonness is noted (I Kgs 10:27). Job refers to its strength (6:12) and firmness (41:24 [H 16]). Akin to this last reference is Ezekiel’s allu- sion to a “‘stony heart” (11:19).
Stones were used for weights (Lev 19:36), al- though the denominations or counterparts are imperfectly known to us. Note the ‘‘royal stone” of If Sam 14:26 (kjv “king's weight’).
The word refers to “‘hailstones’ (e.g. Josh 10:11), and to ‘“‘limestones” (Isa 27:9; KJv ‘‘chalkstones’’).
The word “‘stone’’ appears in place names. The best known (mostly from the hymn *‘Come, Thou Fount’) is “‘Eben-ezer’’ (Heb ‘eben ha‘ ézer, | Sam 7:12). There is also the “‘stone of Bohan” (Josh 15:6, 5B, translated ‘“‘stone of Bo- han” in KJv and **Eben-Bohan” in Nas), and the “stone of Zoheleth” (1 Kgs 1:9, kjv; translated ‘Serpent's Stone” in rsv, ‘‘Slippery Stone’’ in the Berkley Version, and **Sliding Stone” in js). The word aze/l (I Sam 20:19) connected with ‘*stone’’ may be a preposition or adjective, not a proper name.
Note that if an altar was built with stones, they were to be undressed stones, doubtless to make impossible the engraving of idolatrous repre- sentations on them (Ex 20:25; Deut 27:5).
Bibliography: Diringer, David, *‘The Early Hebrew Weights Found at Lachish,”’ PEQ 74: 82-103. Emerton, J. A., *‘The Meaning of *358 wsi> in Lamentations 4:1,°° ZAW 79: 233-36. Harris, J. S., **The Stones of the High Priest’s Breastplate,’ Annual of Leeds University 5: 40-62. LeBas, Edwin E., **Zechariah’s Climax to the Career of the Corner-stone,’’ PEQ 1950: 102-22. Seitz, Oscar J. F., ‘‘‘What Do These Stones Mean?’** JBL 79: 247-54. Sellers, Ovid R., ‘Sling Stones of Biblical Times,’’ BA 2: 41-44, Tiegman, Edward F., *‘The Stone Hewn from the Mountain,’’ CBQ 18: 364-79. TDOT, I, pp. 48-51.
R.L.A.
BIS8 (‘abnét). See no. 256a.
10 BSS (adbas) feed, fatten. Prov 15:17; I Kgs 5:3.
Occurs only in
12
13
Derivatives 10a BISN O('ebus) crib. 106. BSS8 (ma’dbus) granary. Occurs
only in Jer 50:26.
Mysyss (adba‘bi'dt). See no. 217a.
P38 ('bq) I. Assumed root of the following.
Ila 3s (abdq) dust.
llb pas (‘dbaqd) powder. Occurs only in Song 3:6 in the phrase ‘abgat rokel *‘powders of merchant,” L.e. scent powders.
*998 (‘aGbaq) HI, wrestle. the Niphal (Gen 32:25-26).
Occurs only in
"38 (‘br). Assumed root of the following. 13a T5338 (éber), M938 (Cebra) pinions. I3b0 "38 (abar) to fly.
13c 9°38) (‘abir) strong.
13d t3938 (’abbir) mighty.
*éber, ’ebra. Feather or wing. These nouns are probably derived from the same root. A de- nominative verb, ‘dbar ‘‘to soar’ or ‘‘to flutter,” appears only in Job 39:26.
The adjective ‘abbir ‘‘mighty,’’ ‘‘strong,’’ or ‘brave,’ is also probably derived from this root.
’abir. Mighty, the Mighty One of. This word oc- curs only in poetical passages. The first is Jacob's blessing on his son Joseph (Gen 49:24). The third stich of that verse, which contains this word, has the expression ‘the hands of the Mighty One,”’ which is paralleled in the preceding line by the expression ‘‘hands were made strong.”’ The fol- lowing stich has ‘‘the stone of Israel’’ to parallel ‘‘the Mighty One of Jacob.’ The word “‘stone’’ is ‘eben which sounds something like ‘abir ‘*Mighty One’ and emphasizes his strength fur- ther.
The two appearances of the word ‘abir in Ps 132 (vv. 2, 5) are paralleled by the divine name YHWH. The same is true of its three appear- ances in Isaiah (1:24; 49:26; 60:16). Notice the distribution of the term throughout this book, often trisected by critics.
The name ‘abir used as a substitute for deity may be compared with pahad the ‘‘Fear’’ of Isaac (q.v., Gen 31:42, 53). This word ‘*Fear’’ is also taken by some as a surrogate for deity used especially in patriarchal times. It is possible to be translated ‘‘Kinsman.”’ (Albright, FSAC, p. 248; Dahood, in AB, Psalms, I, p. 81.)
It is undeniable that ‘abir relates to the Akka- dian abdru ‘‘be strong.’* Not so certain is the connection with the Ugaritic ‘br ‘‘bull’’ or ‘‘humped buffalo.” However, as in Hebrew, it
may be an element in a divine name in Ugaritic. The Ugaritic form tbrd may mean “the Mighty One of Hadd.”’
’abbir. strong,
Horse, stallion, bull, Apis, chief, mighty, valiant, stout(hearted), stubborn. See
‘abir for derivations and cognates in other Semitic languages and to that list add a New Egyptian cognate which definitely means “‘stallion” from
the hieroglyph. bs
The word is used to denote strength or leader-
ship in a man (I Sam 21:8; Job 24:22; 34:20; Jer 46:15; Lam 1:15), hardness of heart (Ps 76:5 [H 6}; Isa 46:12), angels (Ps 78:25), bulls (Ps 22:12 |H
13]; 50:13; 68:30; Isa 34:7; Jer 50:11), and horses (Jud $:22; Jer 8:16; 47:3). Some in these last two
PD
groups may be interchanged. Isaiah 10:13 can be
read as “‘strong man,” name of the sacred Egyptian bull (so rsv). Bibliography:
‘bull,’ or “‘Apis,” the 33
Alt. A., ““The God of the
Fathers” in Essays on OT History and Religion, tr. R. A. Wilson, Blackwell, 1966, pp. 25 ff. TDOT, I, pp. 42-43. THAT. I. pp. 25-26.
20
R.L.A.
amass) (abraham). See no. 4b.
W998 (Cabrék). Meaning dubious (Speiser, Genesis in AB, translates “‘attention!’’).
338 }Sa
(‘gd). mas
Assumed root of the following. (‘d@eudda) band.
Nas (Egdz) nuts (only in Song 6:11).
MIN ('dgdrd). See no. 23a.
%is (‘g/). Assumed root of the following.
7a 938 (‘égel) drop (only in — Job 38:28).
Bis (‘en). Assumed root of the following.
18a 848. ('dgam) troubled pool.
8b BAS «('agém) sad (only inIsa 19:10).
Was Cagmon), Was ('agmon) rush,
bulrush.
48 (gn). Assumed root of the following. 44
20a 7138) (‘aggdn) bowl. asv and Rsv trans- ~ late somewhat differently.
An ‘aggdn is probably a large deep two-
handled, ring-based bowl. This word occurs three
times.
In Ex 24:6 Moses holds the blood of victims in
‘agegdnot. He dips a bunch of hyssop into the
24 *358 (‘adab)
blood in order to sprinkle the people. In Isa 22:24 ‘agegdnot are common household vessels which can be hung on nails. The word appears in Assy- rian agan(n)u ‘““bowl” and Ugaritic (A. H. Hon- eyman, “The Pottery Vessels of the Old Testa-
ment, Palestine Exploration Fund, 1939, pp. 78-79). R.L.A. ‘IN ('vp). Assumed root of the following. 2la AAS (‘dgap) band, army (occurs only in Ezk (12:14; 17:21; 38:6, 9, 22; 39:4), 338 (‘agar)I, gather (food, Prov. 6:8; Deut 28:39; Prov 10:5).
sas (‘egr) II. Assumed root of the following. 23a MAN (‘dgérd) payment (1 Sam 2:36). 23b TAMSIN (Ciggeret) letter.
’iggeret. Letter. asv, RSV translate the same. This word means “‘letter’’ (royal and general). It may be a loan word from Akkadian egirtu/igirtu which parallels the Hebrew word in usage and refers to legal documents such as deeds (perhaps related to Persian angira, angara [R. Kobert, Orientalia 14: 478-79]). Hence, ‘iegeret may bea letter written on a clay tablet. Biblical Aramaic attests ‘igeerd “letter.” In Esther ‘iggeret is used synonymously with séper, the usual He- brew word for ‘‘letter’’ (cf. Est 9:20, 26). Another synonym is the Persian loan word nisht'wan. ‘iggeret occurs ten times tin later passages con- taining historical connections with Babylonia or Assyria.
The ‘igveret could be open or closed (Neh 6:5). If we are right in equating ‘iggeret with Akkadian evirtu/igirtu, then it refers to the ancient practice of writing the full text on a clay tablet and cover- ing the tablet with an envelope of clay upon which a summary of the contents was written. Finally, it was properly sealed.
Bibliography: CAD 4, 45 “‘egirtu.” Lede, Peras (dgartal). See no. 380a. MAN ('egrop). See no. 38Sa. SS (éd). See no. 38d. *358 (‘ddab) grieve. Occurs only in the Hiphil (1 Sam 2:33). BIs = ('édom). See no. 26e. WISN 'Adomi). See no. 26f. W588 ('ddén). See no. 27b. sss (‘addir). See no. 28b.
25 OTN
25 BSS ('dm)
(‘dm) I. Assumed root of the following. 25a tats (‘adddm) man, mankind, Adam. 25b tm ('ddamda) ground, land.
"adam. Man, mankind; also human (adj.), some- one (indef.); Adam (the first man). The asv and RSV translate the same with notable exceptions. In Job 31:33 the rsv obscures the reference to Adam. Although the etymology of ‘dddm cannot be explained with certainty (cf. TDOT, I, p. 78), the word probably relates to the original ruddi- ness of man’s complexion (cf. F. Maas, '@dam TDOT., |. pp. 78-79). This word for man has to do with man as being in God's image, the crown of creation. It should be distinguished from ‘ish (man as opposite of woman, or as man distin- guished in his manliness). ‘éndsh (man as weak and vulnerable), geber (man as mighty and no- ble), and m* tim. Ugaritic ‘adm normally means **people.”’ and is parallel to /'inz, or is used in the appellation ‘ab ‘adm, “father of mankind.” ‘ddam occurs exclusively in the singular abso- lute, 562 times.
‘adam also refers to generic man as the image of God and the crown of creation or is a personal name. Hence in Gen 1-3 it is the word usually used for man. (In later passages of Scripture it is difficult to distinguish in meaning from ‘ish.) Here, man is distinct from the rest of creation in that: he was created by special and solemn divine counsel (Gen 1:26): his creation was an imme- diate act of God; he was created after the divine type: he was created with two distinct elements (Gen 2:7); he was placed in an exalted position (Gen 1:28); he was intended for a still higher (in the sense of a permanent and fulfilled) position. Hence, man (as ‘adddm) was the crown of crea- tion. Genesis | sets forth ‘addi as the goal and vice-regent of creation, while Gen 2 shows how the creation was formed as the scene of man’s activity, i.e. it was formed around ‘ddd. In the first three chapters of Gen there is a wordplay on man, mankind, and the first man **Adam.” ‘adam connotes man in the image of God as to: soul or spirit (indicating man’s essential simplic- ity, spirituality, invisibility. immortality). physi- cal powers or faculties (the intellect and will with their functions), intellectual and moral integrity (true knowledge. righteousness. and holiness), body (as a fit organ of the soul sharing its im- mortality. and as the means through which man exercises his dominion), and dominion over the lower creation.
The image of God tn man has been much dis- cussed. Engnell, Wildberger, and von Rad refer it to man’s dominion over the non-human world. Humbert and Koehler contend that it indicates man’s external ferm. which seems inappropriate in view of the repeated assertion of God's spiritu- ality. Brunner. Kierkegaard, and Berkhouwer
10
think it refers to man’s exceptional relationship with God. F. Horst declares that man ts a crea- ture who “hears the word of God. speaks to God in prayer and obeys him in service’ (TDOT, I, p. 85). In contrast to these somewhat neo-orthodox approaches the image of God in the narrow sense refers to man as a rational-moral creature (cf. Deut 4:10—12). Significantly God's first words to man are both a command and a prohibition (Gen 2:16-17): man alone is responsible for his deci- sion, man alone determines his destiny by voli- tional choice, and only man is judged as nghteous or sinful by God's law. An older biblical theology holds that the “‘divine likeness 1s rather to be referred to the whole dignity of man in virtue of which human nature is sharply distinguished from that of the beasts; man as a free being Is set over nature, and designed to hold communion with God, and to be his representative on earth” (G. F. Oehler, Old Testament Theology). Payne remarks that “the terms ‘image’ and ‘like- ness’... are used interchangeably.... The image thus connotes ‘freedom’ and ‘blessed- ness’, as it reflects within man the cosmic, ethical and beneficent sovereignty of the Testator him- self.... The divine image thus implies all the various aspects of God's reflected glory and honor.... It may be defined, in summary, as the totality of man’s higher powers that distinguish him from brute creation” (PTOT, p. 227). The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus says of the crea- tion of man: he *‘made them according to his im- age. and put the fear of man upon all flesh, and gave him dominion over beasts and fowls. Coun- se} and a tongue, and cyes, ears, and a heart, gave he them to understand. Withal he filled them with the knowledge of understanding. and showed them good and evil . . . and they shall praise his holy name, that they may search out his marvel- lous works”™* (Eccles 17:3-9).
Even after the fall ‘@dam is used of man! The image of God is still the central distinction. Hence, murder is an attack on the image of God (Gen 9:6). However. the fall lowered man’s posi- tion before God (Gen 6:5-6; 8:21). ruptured his communion with God, and brought the curse of death on him so that he did not fulfill his intended exaltation. That part of the divine image consist- ing of true knowledge. righteousness, and holi- ness was destroyed. Only in and by Christ, the new Adam (Rom S:12-21), can the original divine promise be realized.
‘adama. Ground, land, earth. The asv and Rsv reflect the difficulties in deciding which of the English words to use in translation. Originally this word signified the red arable soil. From this it came to denote any cultivated. plantable ground and/or landed property. At times it approaches the meaning “home country” (see especially Jon
4:2), but probably not in a political sense (how- ever, Isa 14:2; 19:17, and especially Ezekiel’s al- most exclusive ‘“‘land of Israel,’ et al.). One should compare and distinguish ‘eres *‘earth, land,’’ and ‘apar, ‘‘dry earth, dust.’* Also, con- trast helgd ‘‘portion, field,’ vabbashad ‘‘dry land, dry ground,” and sddeh ‘‘field, land, open country.’’ "dda@ma occurs 224 times.
The Bible makes much of the relationship be- tween man (’Gdam) and the ground (‘ddamd). That this might be vivid in the mind of the reader we will transliterate the words in the following discussion. Initially, God made ‘dddm out of the ‘didama to till the "a4damd (Gen 3:23, to bring forth life?). The ’4damdad was God’s possession and under his care (Gen 2:6). Thus, the first ‘adam (the man, Adam) and his family were to act as God's servants by obeying him in maintain- ing the divinely created and intended relation- ships vertically and horizontally. As long as this condition was sustained God caused the 'ddama to give its fruitfulness (blessing) to ‘'ddam.
Then came sin. The unit '4ada@m (Adam and Eve; see also Rom 5:12) violated the created structure. The ’Gdamd, henceforth, brought forth thorns and thistles rather than freely giving fruit (Gen 3:17). Since ‘Gdadm had disrupted the paradisiacal life-producing state, he was driven off the paradisiacal 'ddadmad and sentenced to re- turn to the ’Gddadmd (Gen 3:19). He was driven to It rather than it being given to him. He was to go down rather than up. His life moved in and to- ward death rather than in and toward life. How- ever, the gracious Creator did not completely de- stroy ‘ddam. He promised to bring forth from ‘adam a lifegiver (Gen 3:15). As a token of that promise the Creator caused the 'Gdam4 to give of its fruit (blessing) to ’ddam (note the curse on Cain, Gen 4:12, 14, whereby the ‘dddmd was no longer to give its strength to him). Because of disobedience ‘ddam received a curse from the ‘ddama@ rather than life. Thus, we see that ‘adam!’ Gdama are deeply involved in the pattern creation-fall-redemption.
This pattern is repeated throughout the ort. After the flood God said he would never again curse the ‘ddamd because of ’ddadm (Gen 8:21). He made a new covenant (creation) with Noah (Gen 9:1-17) who became the father of ‘adam (since only Noah and his immediate family were in the ark, Gen 7:7). Noah became a tiller of the ‘adama (Gen 9:20). and God blessed his efforts. However, Noah sinned. In Abraham the promise (redemption) given by God through Noah to Shem emerges in the form of Paradise regained, i.e. the promised land ('d@ddama, Gen 28:14—15).
In the Mosaic legislation God gives the 'ddamda or takes it away according to the obedience of his people (Lev 20:24). Its fruitfulness depends upon their obedience (Deut 11:17). Solomon repeats
11
26 BSS ('dm)
this creation-fall-redemption pattern around ‘adam/' ddam4 (1 Kgs 8:34, 40). This cycle gov- erns the history of Israel (I Kgs 13:34; 14:15; II Kgs 21:8; 25:21). Nehemiah recognizes the same theological pattern (Neh 10:37 [H 38}).
In the eschaton God will change the inner con- stitution of ’ddam (fully restore the divine image) so as to eliminate the possibility of a fall and as- sure eternal possession of the 'G@damd which yields its fruit freely (Ezk 36:25-30; cf. Jer 31:33-34; II Cor 5:17; Heb 8:8-42)—the return to the garden of Eden (Ezk 36:35).
Bibliography: Asselin, David Tobin, ‘‘The Notion of Dominion in Genesis 1-3,’ CBQ 16:277-94. Bloom, Alfred, ‘‘Human Rights in Is- rael’s Thought,” Interp 8: 422-32. DeFraine, J., *‘Individue et Societe dans la Religion de 1’ An- cien Testament,” Bib 33: 324-55, 445-75. Koehler, Ludwig, Hebrew Man, Abingdon, 1957. May, Herbert G., ‘Individual Responsibil- ity and Retribution,“ HUCA 32: 107-20. Oehler, G. F., Old Testament Theology, Funk & Wag- nall, 1883, pp. 146-47. Payne, J. Barton, Theol- ogy of the Older Testament, pp. 221-31. Porter, J. R., ‘‘The Legal Aspects of the Concept of ‘Corporate Personality’ in the Old Testament,” VT 15: 361-80. Richardson, TWB, pp. 14-15. Thomas, D. W., ed., Archaeology and Old Tes- tament Study, Oxford: Clarendon, 1967. Wright, J. Stafford, Man in the Process of Time, Eerdmans, 1956. TDOT, I, pp. 75-87, 88-98. THAT, I, pp. 41-56, 57-59.
Le. dc
26 ass ('dm)II. Assumed root of the following.
26a toss (‘ddom), BIS (‘ddém) be
red.
26b =BS8 ('adbm) red.
26c OBS ('6dem) carnelian.
26d ass ('édém) name of condiment.
26e tee (éddm) Edom.
26f tats (‘ddémi) Edomite.
26g =anetIs (ddamiddadm) be reddish.
26h = ISS Cadmdni) red, ruddy.
’addm, ’adem. Tobe red. The Rsv and asv trans- late the same.
Ugaritic ‘adm is the rouging done by the nobil- ity after bathing. Also note Old Akkadian ‘adadmu ‘‘dark red,” as of a garment, Akkadian adama@tu ‘“‘dark red soil” and adamu “‘red blood,’ and Aramaic 'ddam, as of blood. The biblical stative describes the color of skin (like coral, Lam 4:7), war shields (parallel to scarlet, Nah 2:3 [H 4]), fermented wine (Prov 23:31), sin (Isa 1:18), and tabernacle curtains (Ex 25:5). The verbal form occurs ten times.
’édom. Edom, Edomite. This name was given to Esau, who desired red pottage more than his
27 I8 (dn)
birthright (Gen 25:30; 36:1). He is described as having been ‘‘ruddy,” ‘adderet, at birth (Gen 25:25). His descendants were identified by either of his names (Edom, Gen 36:9, or Esau, Jer 49:8, 10) or by Seir, the mountain where he settled (cf. II Chr 20:22—23). The Edomites assimilated some of the peoples settled in the land when they ar- rived (Deut 2:22, Adri, q.v.). In the Bible the area assumed the name of its Edomite inhabitants. This word occurs ninety-eight times.
The history of Edom is an outworking of God's statements. In Gen 27:27-29, 39-40 Isaac pro- phetically blesses Jacob and Esau. The latter is to live in a desolate place (cf. N. Glueck, **Trans- jordan,’ in D. W. Thomas, ed., Archaeology and Old Testament Study, pp. 429-53), to live by the sword, and to serve his brother. Subsequently, he is to shake and cast off Jacob's yoke. Esau's immediate reaction was hostility.
Israel was not to force their way through Edom to the promised land (Num 20:14), and neither were they to despise their brother (Deut 23:7-8). When God did lead them through or past the bor- ders of the land he strictly protected the rights of the Edomites to whom he had given the area (Deut 1:4~5). But the Edomites acted in a very ‘“‘unbrotherlike’’ fashion, gathering themselves to repulse Israel. When Balaam the prophet was summoned by Balak, Balaam reiterated *‘Ja- cob’s"’ supremacy, stating their future subjuga- tion and possession of Edom (Num 24:18). The history of Israel attests repeated subjugations of and rebellions by Edom. So bitter was the Edo- mite hostility toward “Jacob” that they rejoiced when their brother was destroyed and led captive by the Babylonians (Ps 137:7). They gleefully joined in the fray (Amos 1:6, 9, 11), doing vio- lence to Israel. They scornfully appropriated Jacob's land for themselves (Ezk 36:5). The prophets reaffirmed God's order. Edom was to be punished at the hands of the Babylonians and subjugated by Israel (Isa 11:14; Jer 27:3-6, Ob 1:1—21).
Such was and would be the pattern of Edom’s history, that the Lord may be magnified beyond the border of Israel (Mal 1:5). What a clear illus- tration of divine election, “‘Jacob I loved and Esau I[ hated** (Rom 9:13).
’adomi. FEdomite. This adjective is the gentilic of ‘édom. It occurs eleven times.
Bibliography: Woudstra, M. H., ‘‘Edom and Israel in Ezekiel,” Calvin Theological Journal 3: 21-35.
| OK Ge
Bwo38 (‘ddamiddam). See no. 26g. a8 = ('admoéni). See no. 26h.
27 358 (‘dn). Assumed root of the following. 27a TIN (‘eden) pedestal. 27b 7358) ('ddén) lord. eden. Pedestal, base, or socket. |The asv and
12
RSV translate the same except in Song 5:15 (Asv “pillars,” Rsv ‘“‘bases’’) and Job 38:6 (asv “‘bases’’ rsv “‘foundation’’). The ‘eden was a base into which pegs were inserted in order to hold planks and pillars upright. The word occurs fifty-four times and all but twice in Mosaic legis- lation regarding the tabernacle. The word em- phasizes solidity, coming from a root meaning ‘be strong.”
These bases were to be made of various metals depending on their location in the tabernacle. God's concern over such detail regarding wor- ship is a principle that can hardly be ignored. In the ot, the ritual and the equipment connected with worship was no light thing. Every detail was prescribed by God and those who desired to please him were obligated to obey. It is not true. however. that attention to external detail at the expense of the appropriate inner spiritual disposi- tion pleased God (see also “and ‘‘afflict, oppress, humble,’ Deut 6-11).
Job employs our word to describe the creating activity of God (38:6). It is paralleled with ‘‘cor- nerstone.’’ Hence, comparing himself to a build- er, God infers that he is the one who established the earth's footings, laid creation’s cornerstone, and saw to the securing of the creation.
’adon. Lord, Lord, LORD, master, owner. No doubt exists about the meaning of this word. The Ugaritic ‘adn means “‘lord”™’ or **father’’ and the Akkadian adannu carries a similar meaning, **mighty.”’
In the simple unsuffixed form or when pointed ‘ddoni or ‘Gdona(y), for the first common singu- lar suffix or with other pronominal suffixes, ‘Gdon usually refers to men. Sarah used it in ref- erence to her husband (Gen 18:12), Lot used it in addressing the angelic visitors (Gen 19:2). Abraham’s servant repeatedly called his mas- ter by it in Gen 24. The pharaoh of Egypt was called by this ttle (Gen 40:1), as well as Joseph his ‘‘vizier’” (Gen 42:10). Ruth used it of Boaz before they were married (2:13). Hannah ad- dressed Eli the priest by this term (I Sam 1:15). Saul’s servants called him by the title as well (I Sam 16:16). Likewise, officers less than the king, such as Joab, had this appellation (1J Sam 11:9). In I Kgs 16:24 there is the unique reading ‘‘Shemer, ‘owner of the hill, Samaria."*" The prophet Elijah bore the title ‘‘lord’’ (I Kgs 18:7).
However, there are numerous passages, par- ticularly in Psalms, where these forms, which are the only ones to apply to men, refer to God. Exodus 34:23 combines ‘“‘the Lord, YHWH. the God of Israel” (ha’addon yhwh 'élohé yisra’ él).
Deuteronomy 10:17 uses both the singular and plural in the construction ‘‘Lord of lords’ (dddné ha'adonim; cf. Ps 136:3). In Ps 8:1 [H 2] God has the tithe ‘““YHWH our Lord” (yhwh ’adonéni). The Messiah bears this title in Ps 110:1.
Several personal names include the element Gdoni: Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:5); Adonizedek (Josh 10:1); Adonyah (three men, I Kgs 1:8; II Chr 17:8: Neh 10:17); Adonikam (Ezr 2:13); and Adoniram (1 Kgs 4:6).
When ‘ddon appears in the special plural form, with a first common singular pronominal suffix (‘adoénaly]), it always refers to God. It appears in this form more than three hundred times, mostly in Psalms, Lamentations, and the latter prophets. Just as ’él6him (God) is plural in Hebrew, so this word might also be called an intensive plural or plural of majesty. Only rarely is the suffix trans- lated (cf. Gen 18:3; Isa 21:8; Ps 16:2).
To avoid the risk of taking God’s name (YHWH) in vain, devout Jews began to sub- stitute the word ‘dddna(y) for the proper name itself. Although the Masoretes left the four origi- nal consonants in the text, they added the vowels é (in place of @ for other reasons) and @ to remind the reader to pronounce ‘dddna(y) regardless of the consonants. This feature occurs more than six thousand times in the Hebrew Bible. Most translations use all capital letters to make the title “LORD.” Exceptions are the asv and New World Translation which use ‘Jehovah,” Amplified which uses **Lord,’* and JB which uses ‘*Yahweh.’’ What those cautious Jews did was similar to our custom of saying ‘‘that is*’ when we See the abbreviation °"‘1.e.”’ in the text. Later the Jews substituted other words such as ‘‘the name,” ‘the blessed,’ or ‘theaven’’ (cf. Mk 14:61-62).
In those places where ’Gd6nda(y) yhwh occurs the latter word is pointed with the vowels from ‘élohim, and the English renderings such as ‘‘Lord GOD”’ arose (e.g. Amos 7:1).
Bibliography: Zimmerman, Frank, **’El and Adonai,’ VT 12: 190-95. Richardson, TWB, p. 130. TDNT, Ill, pp. 1058-86. TDOT, I, pp. 59-72. THAT, 1, pp. 31-37.
R.L.A.
28 *"938 (‘ddar) to be majestic (occurs twice in the Niphal and once in the Hiphil).
Derivatives
28a "58 (‘eder) glory, magnificence; man- tle, cloak.
28b 3°98 ('addir) majestic.
28c TAINS (‘adderet) glory, cloak.
Basically, this root connotes that which is superior to something else, and, therefore, that
28.1 3598 ('ddarkén)
which is majestic. Because of the infrequent ver- bal usage in Hebrew and its occurrence in pre- dominantly poetic passages, ‘ddar may be a North Canaanite loanword. Phoenician attests ’adar as a verb (‘‘to be mighty’’), in the Piel, ‘‘to make great,’ an adjective (‘‘great, mighty’’), and a noun (‘‘noble, upper class’’). In Ugaritic ‘dr means upper class or mighty. As an adjective it refers to the material from which Aghat’s bow ts made (2 Aght 6:20-23.) The noun ’eder should be differentiated from hdérim ‘‘nobles,”’ and sdarim ‘“‘princes.”” As an adjective ‘addir should be compared to words like ‘amis, ga’6n, ‘ayil et al. The root occurs forty-six times.
This root is frequently used in reference to God. Moses sings that God showed that he was mighty in holiness by delivering the people from Egypt (Ex 15:10). Here the idea of superior power is set forth (cf. v. 6). His demonstrated power over Egypt made his majesty known and feared by the Philistines (I Sam 4:8). Although the sin of the [sraelities caused sporadic defeats, God’s eternal sovereignty subsequently over- came those kings who claimed temporary superiority (Ps 136:18). God’s name is acclaimed as glorious over all in power and majesty (Ps 8:1 (H 2}). His exclusive lordship (power) over oceanic waves (Ps 93:4) and mountains (Ps 76:4 {H 5}) is rightly expressed by ‘adar.
Not only is God exalted, but he sovereignly exalts other things, e.g. his law (Isa 42:21) whose majesty God will vindicate. God raised up Israel and clothed her with majesty. Ezekiel uses the figures of a vine and tree to describe how God cuts off and exalts Israel at will (Ezk 17:8, 23; cf. Zech 11:3).
’addir. Mighty, majestic (adj.); noble, principal, stately. When used substantively, 'addir paral- lels ‘‘mighty ones’? (Jud 5:13), ‘‘rulers’’ (Jer 30:21), and is sandwiched between “‘captains’’ and ‘‘governors”’ (II Chr 23:20) as the leaders of postexilic Israel. In the difficult verse Ps 16:3 it seems to refer to the saints. In the eschaton the Messiah is described as the one who will be over Israel (Jer 30:21) as the ‘addir. This is to be none other than Jehovah himself (Isa 33:21).
’adderet. Mantle, cloak, majesty (noun); noble, majestic (adj.). ©The noun and adjective are used interchangeably (Ezk 17:8, 23; Zech 11:3). The noun ‘‘mantle’’ is at first surprising, but it refers to a costly robe (Josh 7:21) or prophets’ mantle, etc. (II Kgs 2:8).
Bibliography: Ahlstrom, G., ** OR,’’ VT 17: L.J.C. 28.1 Wo"Is Cddarkén) daric. This Persian
loan word is probably to be distinguished from dark’monim ‘‘drachma,’’ no. 453c. (So KB.)
29
29 Sms (‘aheb)
sms) (ahéb) love, like, be in love, lovely. Derivatives
29a TSER8 Cahab) love.
29b T3R8 (Ohah) love.
29c TABS Cahdaba) love.
There is little variation in the basic meaning of this verb. The intensity of the meaning ranges from God's infinite affection for his people to the carnal appetites of a lazy glutton.
The verb appears in all moods of the Qal stem plus Niphal participle and Piel participle. The six- teen Piels are not intensive, but usually refer to illicit “‘lovers.". The prophets Jeremiah (22:20, 22; 30:14), Ezekiel (16:36; 23:5, et al.), and Hosea (2:5—13) use the word to speak of Israel's adulter- ous relations. Zechariah has the word in the pre- sumably messianic passage, ‘J was wounded in the house of my friends” (13:6).
‘Ghéb frequently describes love between human beings. The love of father for son is exemplified by Abraham and Isaac (Gen 22:2) and Israel and Joseph (Gen 37:3). A slave might ‘love’ his master and wish to identure himself to him for the rest of his life (Ex 21:8). This is the word used in the rule “/ove your neighbor as yourself (Lev 19:18). **Love™’ of the stranger is also incumbent on the faithful (Deut 10:19). Sam- son had apparently told Delilah that he “loved” her (Jud 14:16: 16:15). Ruth “loved’* Naomi her mother-in-law (4:15), Elkanah “loved” his wife Hannah (I Sam 1:5), and Rebekah “‘Joved”” her son Jacob (Gen 25:28). Hiram's “love” for David illustrates international friendship or irenic poli- tics between the two (I Kgs 5:1). Notice that nowhere is the Jove of children toward parents mentioned. Rather. they are to honor, revere, and obey.
People may love things concrete or abstract. Isaac ““loved”* savory meat (Gen 27:4); others are said to “love’> oil (Prov 21:17), silver (Eccl 5:9), and gifts (Isa 1:23). The Psalmist “*loved’* God's commandments (Ps 119:47). law (v. 97), tes- timonies (v. 119), and precepts (v. 159). Men can “love” evil (Ps 52:3 [H 5]), or death (Prov 8:36). vanity (Ps 4:2 |H 3]). cursing (Ps 109:17), or a false oath (Zech 8:17). Or they can “love” good (Amos 5:15). truth and peace (Zech 8:19). salva- tion (Ps 40:16 [H 17]), and wisdom (Prov 29:3).
God has commanded man to “love” him (Deut 6:5), and the Psalms contain testimonies of obedience to that commandment (116:1; 145:20). Conversely, God “loves” men, especially his people Israel (Deut 4:37: Isa 43:4, Mal 1:2). The Lord also “‘loves”’ other things, such as the gates of Zion (Ps 87:2). righteousness and judgment (Ps 33:5), and the holy temple (Mal 2:11). In a few places the verb introduces an infinitive. Jeremiah (14:10) accused the people of loving to wander,
14
while Isaiah charged them with loving to sleep (56:10). The verb itself is sometimes an infinitive, as in Josh 22:5 and Isa 56:6. At least once it is a gerund, ‘a time to fove” (Eccl 3:8).
The participles often translate as ‘*friend.”’ From II Cnr 20:7 comes the notion that Abraham is the ‘friend’ of God. As noted above, the En- glish word ‘lover,’ translating the Piel partici- ple, often carries a derogatory connotation imply- ing prostitution (Hos 2:7; 9:12;,Ezk 16:33, 36-37; Jer 22:20, 22; 30:14; Lam 1:19; Zech 13:6, etc.).
’ahab. Love, lovely, lovers. (ksv and most oth- ers.) Berkeley translates ‘‘love-gifts’’ in Hos 8:9 and js renders “‘fair’’ in Prov 5:19. This word occurs only in these two passages and is plural in both. The passage in Prov carries a good conno- tation, “‘lovely doe,’ but in Hosea the connota- tion 1s negative, “hired lovers."’
*Ohab. Love. Prov 7:18.
This word means the object of love in Hos 9:10, where it is parallel to ‘*shame”™’ and **Baal.”’ There it may be parsed as an infinitive construct. In Prov 7:18, its only other occurrence, ’dhab also has an illicit overtone.
*ahdba. Love. Typical of abstractions in He- brew this noun is feminine. Like the cognates which share the same root letters, the meaning is “love.”
The noun ‘ahdba describes the love of hus- band toward wife, as that of Jacob for Rachel (Gen 29:20)..God's “love’’ for his people is des- ignated by the same word (Deut 7:8; II Chr 2:11; et al.). Jonathan's affection for David is also ‘ahaba (I Sam 18:3; 20:17; cf. If Sam 1:26).
‘ahdba occurs frequently in the wisdom litera- ture and a few times in the latter prophets. Prov- erbs uses the word in its most abstract form: ‘love covers all sins” (10:12), “‘better a dinner where love is” (15:17; cf. Eccl 9:1, 6). Naturally, the word is used in the Song of Solomon. It is the term for ‘love’ in several familiar verses. ** His banner over me is love’ (2:4). “‘I am sick of love’ (2:5; 5:8). **Love is strong as death” (8:6). **Many waters cannot quench love’ (8:7).
Famous passages in the prophets use this word as well. ‘‘I have loved you with an everlasting love” (Jer 31:3). “I drew them... with bands of love’ (Hos 11:4). **And what does the Lorp re- quire of you but to do justice and to love mercy” (Mic 6:8). lit. “the love of mercy”’ (‘ahdbat hesed).
Bibliography: Audet, Jean-Paul, **Love and Marriage in the Old Testament,’ Scripture 10: 65-83. McCarthy, Dennis J., ** Notes on the Love of God in Deuteronomy and the Father-Son Rela- tionship Between Yahweh and Israel,’ CBQ 27: 144-47. McKay, J. W., *‘Man’s Love for God in
The js translates ‘‘delight’’ in
Deuteronomy and the Father/Teacher-Son/Pupil Relationship,"’ VT 22: 426-35. Moran, William L., ‘‘The Ancient Near Eastern Background of the Love of God in Deuteronomy,”’ Interp 19: 399-411. Torrance. T. F., *‘The Doctrine of Grace in the Old Testament,’’ SJT 1: 55-65. TDNT, I, pp. 21-35; LX, pp. 124-27, 154-59. TDOT, I, pp. 99-117. THAT, I, pp. 60-72. R.L.A.
30 RN (ahah) alas, ah_ in most translations, but also ‘‘oh’’ (sB, Joel 1:15), ‘‘O”’ (NEB, Jer 4:10), and ‘‘oh no”’ (NAB, Ezk 4:14).
This interjection is common to both Hebrew and English; the translation ‘‘ah”’ is practically a transliteration (though the Oxford English Dic- tionary does not suggest a Hebrew derivation of ‘‘ah.”’ Its origin is obscure). In most places it is used with ‘‘Lord GOD” (Josh 7:7; Jud 6:22; Jer 1:6; 4:10; 14:13; 32:17; Ezk 4:14; 9:8; 11:13; other occurrences are Jud 11:35; II Kgs 3:10; 6:5, 15; Joel 1:15).
35 NAS Caharon)
The tabernacle was essentially a tent, com- posed of two layers of cloth and two layers of skins stretched over a wooden framework (Ex 26:7, 14-15). It is designated ‘‘tent of meeting” (‘Ohel mé‘éd, Ex 33:7-11, etc.), as well as ‘*tent of testimony” ('dhel ‘édat, Num 9:15; 17:22-23, etc.)
’ohdla, ’ohdliba. Oholah, Oholibah. Ezekiel uses these nouns as symbolic names for Samaria and Jerusalem: Oholah (‘her tent’) and Oholibah (“‘my tent is in her,’ Ezk 23:4, etc.). The names Oholiab (tent of the father, Ex 31:6) and Oholibamah (tent of the high place, Gen 36:2, 41) are from this noun.
Bibliography: Ben-Mordecai, C. A., ‘The Tent of Meeting (Ex 33, 7-11),°° JQR 30: 399- 401. Clifford, R. J., ‘‘The Tent of El and the Is- raelite Tent of Meeting,” CBQ 33: 221-27. Guil- lebaud, M.L.G., ‘‘The Tent over the Taberna- cle,”’ EQ 31: 90-96. Haran, Menahem, **The Na- ture of the ‘Ohel mo’edh in Pentateuchal Sources,’ JSS 5: 50-65. Morgenstern, Julian, ‘‘The Ark, the Ephod, and the Tent,’’ HUCA 17:
Bibliography: THAT, I, p. 73. 153-265; 18: 1-52. SE, ** The Tent of Meet- R.L.A. ing, JAOS 38: 125-39. TDOT, I, pp. 118-29. J.P.L. 31 MS (hi) where (Hos 13:10, 14). ; 33 *9ss8 ('dhal) ll, to be clear, shine. Occurs 32 %N8 (ahal) I, to pitch a tent. Denomina- once (in the Hiphil), in Job 25:5.
tive verb.
Parent Noun 32a toms ('ohel) tent, dwelling.
Derivatives
32b «tM9ON = ('ohdla) Oholah. 32c = tm3°9nN (ohldliba) Oholibah.
This verb occurs in the Qal (Gen 13:12, 18) and Piel (Isa 13:20).
’Ohel. Dwelling, home, tabernacle, tent and RSV similar).
’Ohel, a masculine noun, occurs 340 times and is used for the animal skin or goat's hair (Song 1:5) dwelling of nomadic people (Gen 4:20; 13:5; 18:16; 25:27; etc.), shepherds (Jer 6:3), women (Gen 31:33; Jud 4:17; cf. Isa 54:2), warriors (I Sam 17:54; Jer 37:10; etc.), and cattle (II Chr 14:14). It is also used for the bridal tent (11 Sam 16:22).
The word ‘dhe! continued to be used for a habi- tation or home (I Kgs 8:66; 12:16; Ps 91:10; Jud 19:9), including David’s palace (Isa 16:5) long after the Israelites had adopted more permanent dwellings. ‘dhe! is figuratively used for the people of Edom (Ps 83:7), Qedar (Ps 120:5; Song 1:5), Judah (Jer 30:18), Cushan (Hab 3:7), and others. The ‘tent of the daughter of Zion’? (Lam 2:4) is a figure for Jerusalem.
(ASV
34 9Rs (Al) IM.
15
35
Assumed root of the following.
34a Oss «('Ghal) aloes.
mans (‘ohdliba). See no. 32c. wags Cahdrén) Aaron. The older brother of Moses. A Levite and the first high priest.
The Bible records that Aaron was the son of Amram (I Chr 6:3). Aaron was the spokesman for Moses, who had complained to God that he was slow of speech (Ex 4:10-14).
Aaron married Elisheba the daughter of Am- minadab the sister of Nahshon (Ex 6:23) and they had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The first two ‘‘offered strange fire’* and died near the tabernacle (Lev 10:i-2; Num 3:4). The other two served as priests under Aaron until he died, and then Eleazar became the high priest (Num 20:26).
With Hur, Aaron held up Moses’ arms, bearing the rod of God, during the battle with Amalek (Ex 17:12).
According to Ex 30, Aaron's duties included burning sweet incense daily (v. 7), lighting the lamps nightly (v. 8), and making atonement yearly (v. 10). Leviticus 16 outlines more respon- sibilities. He was to bring certain sacrifices for the atonement when he entered the holy place (v.
36 38 (6)
3). He wore the holy linen coat, linen underwear, a linen sash, and a linen mitre (v. 4). The actual procedures are described in the verses which fol- low in Lev 16.
It was Aaron who was culpable in the golden calf incident (Ex 32:35). One hears a note of in- sincerity in his protest, ‘‘I cast it (i.e. the people’s gold) into the fire, and out came this calf’ (Ex 32:24).
Aaron survived most of the wilderness journey and died at the age of 123 (Num 33:39). Moses and Eleazar witnessed his decease on Mount Hor (Num 20:25-29).
His name occurs only a few times in the histor- ical books, once in the prophets (Mic 6:4), and only eight times in the Psalms. The best known is Ps 133:1-2 (cf. Ex 30:25, 30):
Behold, how good and how pleasant it is
For brethren to dwell together in unity!
It is like the precious oil upon the head,
That ran down upon the beard,
Even Aaron’s beard;
That came down upon the skirt of his garments.
It was, of course, the oil not the beard that ran down to the skirt of his garments (cf. the Nv). In the nt, Luke (1:5) makes a note of Elizabeth’s descent from Aaron. Stephen refers to his outstanding sin of idolatry in the sermon recorded in Acts 7:40. And, naturally, references to Aaron appear in Hebrews (5:4; 7:11; 9:4). In this epistle, which stresses the superiority of Christ to various other divine institutions and oT personages (angels, Moses, the priesthood), Christ is superior to Aaron. Jesus, the Son of God, is called the great high priest (4:14) who though personally without sin, is touched with the feelings of our infirmities (4:15). As the argu- ment develops, the apostle asserts that Christ is of the lineage of Melchizedek, a pre-Levitical priest-king (Heb 7:11). Through chapter 9 of the Epistle to the Hebrews its author underscores the superiority of Christ’s work and continual minis- try, ‘‘But Christ having come a high priest of the good things to come, through the greater and more perfect tabernacle, not made with hands, that is to say, not of this creation, nor yet through the blood of goats and calves, but through his own blood, entered in once for all into the holy place, having obtained eternal redemption”’ (vv. 11-12). R.L.A.
18 ('6) or, whether, not the least, if, other- wise, also, and, then.
The Ugaritic cognate is ’u and the Akkadian is u
This conjunction occurs almost three hundred times in the Hebrew Bible. Three-fourths of these
16
are in the books of Moses and particularly in the legislation. Usually it introduces an alternative situation or an exception to a general principle. In Lev 13:47-49 ’6 is used ten times.
R.L.A.
38 (aw). See no. 40a.
37 318 (’wb). Assumed root of the following.
37a +358 ('6b) one that hath a familiar spirit (KJV and ASv).
Modern versions have a variety of terms in- cluding medium, ghost, spirit, spirit of the dead, necromancer, and wizard. In Job 32:19 the word means wineskin or bottle (NEB ‘‘bellows’’).
Hoffner lists the following cognates: Sumerian ab(.lal), Hittite a-a-bi, Ugaritic ’eb, and Assy- rian abu (see bibliography).
The pair ’6b and yidd*‘6ni (q.v.) often appear together (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deut 18:11; I Sam 28:3, 9; II Kgs 21:6; 23:24; II Chr 33:6; Isa 8:19; 19:3). Since the former, which is feminine, refers to women who practice this variety of sorcery, and the other, which is masculine, refers to such men. The word yidd®‘éni is derived from the root ‘to know”’ (yada‘).
God’s people were commanded to stay away from these occultists (Lev 19:31). In fact, the punishment for turning to such *‘mediums’’ was death by stoning (Lev 20:27). Naturally, '6b is included in the complete list of similar abomina- tions in Deut 18:10-11. All of these occupations deal with the occult. Man has desired, from time immemorial, to know the future. In those days some occultists read cloud formations, others ex- amined livers (Ezk 21:21 [H 26]), while still oth- ers consulted ghosts.
The word ’6b apparently refers to those who consulted ghosts, because I Sam 28 describes one in action. The famous ‘‘witch’’ of En-dor is an ’6b. Although Saul had outlawed ‘‘witches’’ and ‘‘wizards,’’ he nevertheless consulted her. Dis- guising himself, he had the ‘‘medium”’ bring up Samuel from the dead. She was successful, and although he complained of being disturbed, he announced to Saul the bad news that God was displeased and that Saul and his sons would die the next day.
One explanation of this phenomenon is that God responded to the weakness of men and ac- commodated himself to what he himself had for- bidden. It may have been that the woman was a bona fide and successful ’66 and that her other successes were not hoaxes. Apparently this diabolical device was a real threat to the faith of God’s people. On the other hand, the interview may have come by way of a waking vision, sent
by God but without involving any actual trans- portation of Samuel from the dead, even though his appearance in this vision conveyed an authen- tic message from God. Note, the woman was her- self surprised.
Isaiah discredits these ‘“‘necromancers’’ and implies by his choice of words that the sounds of spirits so raised are nothing more than ven- triloquism: ‘‘The mediums and the wizards who chirp and mutter’’ (8:19). Isaiah makes two more analogies to the sounds made by an ’6b: ‘From low in the dust your words shall come... your speech shall whisper out of the dust’’ (29:4).
There is apparently no connection between the kind of black magic implied by the word ’6b and Elihu’s use of it in Job 32:19. The near-universal judgment that ’6b means ‘‘wineskin’’ in this verse indicates that any relationship between the words is very tenuous. They may simply be chance homonyms.
One of the stops during the wilderness wander- ings was Oboth (’6b6t) which looks like a plural of ’6b (Num 21:10-11; 33:43—44). Yet it might be translated as ‘‘place of waterskins”’ or the like, which sounds more suitable for the name of a place than “‘sorcerers.”’
Other terms for diviners and divination are: ‘itti, ‘anan, ’ashshap, hartom, yidd‘ dni, kashap, nahash, qasam.
Bibliography: Gaster, M., ‘‘Divination (Jewish), in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 1V, Scribners, 1955. Hoffner, Harry, Jr., ‘Second Millennium Antecedents to the Hebrew ’ob,’’ JBL 86: 385-401. Lust, J., ‘‘On Wizards and Prophets,’’ Supp VT 26: 133—42. Montague, Summers, The History of Witchcraft, University Books, 1956. Rabin, Chaim, ‘Hittite Words in Hebrew,” Or 32: 113-39. TDOT, I, pp. 130-33.
R.L.A.
SIN (‘ibal). See no. 835g.
38 8) ('wd). Assumed root of the following.
38a = TN (‘ud) brand, firebrand (Amos 4:11:
Zech 3:2; Isa 7:4). 38b imN ('6da) cause. 38c 6tTS «('éd) distress, calamity. 38d T38 ('éd) mist.
’*6da. Because, cause, concerning, sake, about, of, that, on account of. This feminine noun oc- curs only in the plural (’6d6t or ’6d6t) and is always preceded by the preposition ‘a/ meaning ‘‘for’’ (except in II Sam 13:16 where most assume the ’a/ is an orthographic irregularity). Otherwise the word appears in Gen 21:11, 25; 26:32; Ex 18:8; Num 12:1; 13:24: Josh 14:6; Jud 6:7; and Jer 3:8.
17
38 S38 (wd)
’éd. Calamity, destruction, ruin, disaster, distress, vengeance, trouble, misfortune, doom, terror, downfall, peril. Apart from one reference in Ezk 35:5), all twenty-two occurrences of ’éd appear in poetical sections. Its use in Deut 32:35 is part of the Song of Moses, and II Sam 22:19 is identi- cal to Ps 18:18 [H 19].
The expression ‘‘day of calamity’’ constitutes one-third of the references. It is parallel to ‘*doom’”’ (‘étid6r) in Deut 32:35, *‘day of wrath” (‘abarét) in Job 21:30, and “‘the time of their punishment’’ (p‘quiddatam) in Jer 46:21. Note that Ezk 35:5 has ‘‘the time of their calamity”’ parallel to ‘‘the time of their final punishment”’ (‘awo6n qgés). In Ob the expression ‘‘day of their calamity’ appears three times in one verse (13).
In Job 31:23, 30:12, and Ps 18:18 (parallel to Il Sam 22:19), the righteous sufferer is in view. Otherwise the wicked person or nation deserves ‘‘destruction.”’ Proverbs 1:26—27 and 6:15 illus- trate the former while Jer 48:16 and 49:32 picture the latter.
This word is to be distinguished from the Sumerian loan word ’éd ("8), meaning “‘mist’’ or ‘‘flood’’ (see below).
"ed. Mist (Kiv, ASV, RSV,) vapor (Berkley Ver- sion) flood (3B, NEB) stream (NAB). These are the various translations of Gen 2:6. Most versions translate ‘‘mist’’ in Job 36:27.
Based on these two biblical contexts and the Akkadian and Sumerian cognates, edé# and A.DE.A respectively, the meanings other than ‘*mist’’ and ‘‘vapor’’ have been suggested. Ear- lier translators did not have access to the ancient cuneiform languages which help to determine the meaning of these difficult words. The Lxx trans- lators guessed at xnyy (spring) in Genesis and vepeéAn (cloud) in Job. The Akkadian edé refers to the annual inundation of Babylon by the Eu- phrates as well as to irrigation. If Eden was watered by floods and irrigation rather than rain, it may have been located in an area like southern Mesopotamia where it does not rain. Such a loca- tion would suggest that the paradisiacal situation was not worldwide but peculiar to Eden’s im- mediate environs.
The Job passage is rich with meteorological de- tails. However, ‘“‘mist’’ is not demanded there; one of the several options such as ‘‘stream”’ would well fit.
Bibliography: Harris, R. Laird, ‘*The Mist, the Canopy, and the Rivers of Eden,’ JETS 11: 177-79. Saebo, Wayne, ‘Die _hebrdaischer Nomina ‘ed und ’ed,’’ Studia Theologia 24: 130-41. THAT, I, pp. 122-24. Speiser, E. A., ‘*’"ED in the story of Creation’’ Oriental and Bib- lical Studies, Collected Writings, Univ of Phila. Press, 1967, pp. 23-34.
R.L.A.
40
39 M8 (wh)
39 m8 ('wh) I. Assumed root of the following. 39a 60S SO) T, ~—s coast, region. m8 (awa) HI, desire, long, lust, covet, wait
"longingly, wish, sigh, crave, want, be greedy, prefer.
Derivatives 40a TS ('aw) desire. 40b 38 (‘awwa) desire. 40c “IN (ma’dway) desire.
40d {MSH (ta’dwa) desire.
Often the subject of this verb is nepesh mean- ing variously ‘“‘self,”’ “soul, ‘‘appetite’’ (e.g. Deut 12:20; 14:26; I Sam 2:16; I Kgs 11:37; Job 23:13; Isa 26:9). Sometimes the object is ‘‘meat”’ (Deut 12:20), ‘fruit’ (Mic 7:1), or delicate food (Prov 23:3, 6). The object may be ‘‘evil’’ itself (Prov 21:10) or a ‘“*kingdom”™ (II Sam 3:21; I Kgs 11:37). Occasionally the object is unspecific. Ac- cording to Num 11:4 the people “‘lusted a lust’’ or ‘felt a gluttonous craving’’ (sps). Other examples are Prov 21:26 and Eccl 6:2.
The last of the Ten Commandments in the form given in Deut uses this word: ‘“Do not ‘covet’ your neighbor’s house’? (Deut 5:21b). In the phrase ‘‘do not ‘covet’ your neighbor's wife’ (Deut 5:21a), the Hebrew verb is hmd. hmd is the only verb in the Ex parallel.
Of the twenty-seven occurrences of the word only four are in the prophets. Perhaps the best known is Amos 5:18, *“‘Woe to you that ‘desire’ the day of the Lorp.”’
Numbers 34:10 uses this verb (or another verb spelled identically) in a unique way. There it means ‘point out’ (kjv), and many modern translations render ‘“‘draw a line for’’ a border. Possibly this is derived from tdwd (q.v.) meaning in the Hiphil *‘make a sign.”’
’aw. Desire. Proverbs 31:4 has the only occur- rence of ‘aw. It may be a shortened masculine form of the feminine noun ‘awwéd (q.v.) also meaning ‘‘desire.’’ Because it appears in con- struct it is pointed ’éw (in the Qere text).
’"awwa. Desire, lust, will, This feminine noun appears in Deut 12:15, 20-21; 18:6; I Sam 23:20; Jer 2:24; Hos 10:10. Note that ‘aww4 occurs in construct with nepesh (soul/mind) in all passages except the last one.
ta’awa. Desire, pleasant, lust, greed, dainty, de- sirable. Like the other nouns built from the root wh (’aw and ‘awwa), this noun has the meaning of ‘‘desire’’ extending to both good and bad ob- jects. .
In Num 11:34-35 and 33:16~17, this feminine noun forms part of the name of the station in the wilderness, gibrét-hatta’dwad (‘Graves of Greed’). In Gen 49:26 it means ‘‘boundary,’’ but
4]
18
that is probably a different word built instead on a
root td’a ‘‘to designate”’ or it may be a noun from
"dw II ‘‘a mark,’’ therefore ‘‘a boundary.” R.L.A.
*8 (awa) ll, sign, mark, describe with a mark. Occurs only in the Hithpael (Num 34:10).
Derivative
4la TMi8 (ot) sign, mark, token, ensign, Standard, miracle, miraculous sign, proof, warning.
’6t. This is the general word for ‘‘sign,”’ and it covers the entire range of the English term and the Greek word sémeion. On the pedestrian end of the scale it includes what amounts to a ‘‘signboard’* or ‘‘standard’’ (Num 2:2). It also includes such important concepts as the rainbow ‘*sign’’ to Noah (Gen 9:12—13, 17).
1. ’6t first occurs in Gen 1:14, where it refers to the luminaries serving as ‘‘signs’’ to distin- guish the seasons. In Jer 10:2 it has a similar meaning.
2. According to Gen 4:15, the Lord set a ‘*mark’’ on Cain. The meaning of this word is uncertain.
3. A third use of the word is illustrated by Gen 9:12-13, 17, according to which the rainbow is a ‘“‘sign’’ of the covenant. Circumcision is the ‘sign’? in Gen 17:11. Also, the Sabbath is to be a ‘‘sign,’’ according to Ex 31:13, 17 and Ezk 20:12. It is this use of ‘‘sign’’ that is meant when Chnis- tians refer to the ordinances as outward “‘signs”’ of inward grace.
4. Most of the eighty occurrences of ‘6r refer to ‘‘miraculous signs.’’ All the plagues on the Egyptians are called ‘‘signs.’’ In these contexts the complementary word mopét (q.v.) meaning ‘*wonders”’ often occurs (Ex 7:3; Deut 4:34; 6:22; 7:19; 26:8; Neh 9:10; Isa 20:3; et al.). This word "6t is used in Isaiah’s famous prophecy to Ahaz (7:11, 14). The shadow’s advance on the palace steps was a ‘‘sign’’ for the ailing king Hezekiah (II Kgs 20:9; Isa 38:7). Likewise God showed Gideon a ‘‘sign’’ by igniting the offered food (Jud 6:17). .
5. The word ’6f sometimes means ‘‘token.”’ For example, Aaron’s rod was to be a ‘warning to the rebellious’ (Num 17:25 naB and Heb, v. 10 in other English versions). In the same category are the stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), the ham- mered plates on the altar (Num 16:38 [H 17:3]), and the witness pillar in Egypt (Isa 19:20).
6. A dreamer or a prophet, true or false, could produce ‘‘signs’’ according to Deut 13:1ff. The fulfillment of Jeremiah’s threat of punishment was a true ‘‘sign”’ (Jer 44:29), while Isaiah speaks of “‘signs’’ of liars (44:25).
Naturally, these categories are artificial and overlap. The simple fact that one Hebrew word covers them all is proof of that. The word “sign” either signifies the unusual event itself or in someway points to that unusual event. Or it may point backward to a historical event such as the stones in the Jordan (Josh 4:6), or even forward to such a promise as a thornless future world (Isa 55:13).
Bibliography: Knight, Harold, *‘The Old Tes- tament Conception of Miracle,’’ SJT 5: 355-61. Pritchard, James B., *“‘Motifs of Old Testament Miracles,” Crozer Quarterly 27: 97-109. Richardson, TWB, p. 152. Robinson, H. W., ‘‘The Nature-Miracles of the Old Testament,”’ JTS 45: 1-12. TDNT, VII, pp. 209-29. THAT, I, pp. 91-94.
R.L.A.
SN (‘dy). Woe! Alas! Oh!
This onomatopoetic interjection occurs twenty-two times in the oT. Often the preposition ‘to’ with a first person pronoun (“‘me”’ or ‘‘us’’) follows to indicate despair. Isaiah 6:5 1s an exam- ple: ‘*Woe to me because I am undone!”’ With the second or third person pronoun it indicates threat or denunciation. Numbers 21:29 illustrates this: ‘‘Woe to you, Moab!”’
Possibly the slang expression Oy! in English 1s a transliteration of this Hebrew word coming into English through Yiddish.
Bibliography: Wanke, Gunther, "8 und 93,” ZAW 78: 215-18.
R.L.A.
43. ms ('wh)IV. Assumed root of the following.
43a Ss (7), jackal.
43b ms ('ayyad) hawk, falcon, kite.
bin (éwil), 8 (éewili). See no. 44a,b.
‘is (’w/)I. Assumed root of the following.
44a to ('éwil) foolish.
44b oN (’Bwil?) foolish (Zech 11:15).
44c tne (Cinwelet) folly, foolishness,
foolish.
’éwil. Fool, foolish, foolish man, although the word is rendered ‘‘fool’’ in twenty of twenty-six usages (ASV Same, RSV Similar).
Some derive ‘éwil from yd’al **be foolish,” while another possibility 1s from an Arabic word meaning “be thick,’ and therefore ‘‘thick- brained’’or *‘stupid.”’
The Niv renders *‘fool”’ in Prov 1:7 with a foot- note: **The Hebrew words rendered foo! in Prov- erbs, and often elsewhere in the OT denote one who is morally deficient.’’ Such a person is lack- ing in sense and is generally corrupt. If one can
(ASV, RSV Similar.)
19
44 58 (wl)
‘posit a gradation in the words for fool, ‘éwil
would be one step below k* sil and only one step above nabal (q.v.). An even stronger word in Prov is /és, often translated ‘‘scoffer."’ The ‘éwil is not only a k‘ sil because of his choices, but he is also insolent.
The 'éwil identifies himself as soon as he opens his mouth. He would be wise to conceal his folly by keeping quiet (Prov 17:28). When he starts talking without thinking, ruin is at hand (Prov 10:14). While a wise man avoids strife, the fool quarrels at any time (Prov 20:3). He cannot re- strain himself and will *‘display his annoyance at once,’’ whereas a wise man overlooks an insult (Prov 12:16 niv). A fool has no balance in his relations with others. The wisdom instructor in- dicates that while stones and sand are most bur- densome, a fool’s anger is even more intolerable.
As indicated, ’éwil primarily refers to moral perversion or insolence, to what is sinful rather than to mental stupidity. This kind of a fool de- Spises wisdom and is impatient with discipline. He who does not fear God is a fool and will be unable to grasp wisdom or benefit from godly dis- cipline (Prov 1:7). While the wise accept godly instruction, the boastful or babbling fool who re- jects it will fall down by the predicaments he makes for himself (Prov 10:8). Because a fool feels that his own way is without error, he does not seek or listen to counsel as the wise one does. The fool is overbearing in his attitude since he has all the answers (Prov 12:15). A fool despises his father’s instructions, in contrast to the one who shows good sense in regarding reproof (Prov 15:5). This kind of fool is also licentious, taking sinful enjoyment with a wayward woman (Prov 1322);
This moral perversion is seen tn the statement, ‘‘Fools mock at guilt’’ (Prov 14:9). The word for guilt can also mean the trespass offering (Lev 5). Thus the fool scorns and despises restitution for the injuries and sins he commits (NIv, ‘*mock at making amends for sin’). He flouts his responsi- bility to the community as a responsible person. On a contrary note the upnght (or wise) have a good reputation and are well liked.
Even if a fool were pounded with a pestle ina mortar along with the grain, no desirable results would follow (Prov 27:22).
A deplorable situation was seen in the northern kingdom, when Hosea was called an 'éwil by the general populace (Hos 9:7). The people had for- gotten the law of God (Hos 4:6) and they consid- ered the precepts of the law a strange thing (8:12). In their perversity they regarded the teaching of the prophet as being contrary to their world view. Actually, through their twisted judgment, they gave themselves away as fools. The adjectival use of foolish follows the same idea of the noun’s moral insolence. The tragedy is that this condi-
45 "8 (wl)
tion will never lead the foolish to know the Lord (Jer 4:22).
’"iwwelet. Folly, foolishness, each twelve times, 1S associated with a k*sil and overlaps in meaning. Thus, a fool displays his folly, i.e., his ‘iwwelet (Prov 13:16). The folly (Ciwwelet) of fools is deceit (Prov 14:8). One ts regarded a fool because of his folly (‘iwweler), since folly seems a special product of fools (k° silim).
But the aspect of moral insolence is prominent. A quick-tempered man acts foolishly and is likely to do things he might later regret (Prov 14:17). Likewise one who is quick-tempered makes his folly prominent to attract the attention of others (Prov 14:29). A foolish man perverts his own way. His kind of way is his own fault, not God’s (Prov 19:3). Discipline is important to children because foolishness is part of a child’s nature. A remedy for correction is the rod of discipline in order to drive the foolishness from him (Prov 22:15). One must keep in mind that this discipline is important to curb moral insolence that might lead in turn to rebellion against God. Proverbs emphasizes the necessity for discipline (13:24; 23:13-14; 29:15). But it is to be tempered with compassion and concern (1:8-9). The folly of a quick-tempered person is contrasted with the great understanding (1° bind, q. v.) of one slow to anger (Prov 14:29). Similarly, the senseless find joy in folly, while by contrast the one who walks straight is a man of understanding.
’éwili. Foolish. | Used only once in the sense of an overseer in Zech 11:15, describing the foolish shepherd who had no concern for the people to whom he was to minister.
Bibliography: Donald, Trevor, ‘‘The Seman- tic Field of ‘Folly’ in Proverbs, Job, Psalms, and Ecclesiastes," WT 13: 285-92. Greenstone, Julius, Proverbs, Jewish Publication Society, 1950. Harris, R. Laird, ‘‘Proverbs,’’ in WBC. Kidner, Derek, Proverbs, Inter-Varsity, 1964, pp. 39-41. Walker, W. L., ‘Folly,’ in ISBE, II, pp. 1124-25. TDOT, I, pp. 137-39. THAT, I, pp. 77-78.
L.G. 45 Ns (‘wil) II. Assumed root of the following. 45a 1% ('al) 1, body, belly (Ps 73:4). 45b O58) (al) HT, leading man, noble (II Kes 24:15). 45c taose (uldm) I, porch. 45d tos (ayil) I, ram. 45e tos (‘ayil) IH, door post, jambs, pilaster. 45f tos (Cayil) IU, leader. 45¢ to (‘ayil) IV, terebinth. 45h t 89s (ela) terebinth. 451 9s (élén) terebinth. 45; ‘too ('élam) portico.
20
45k 45]
"Ss (‘ayydl) stag, deer. tmbx (‘ayyald) doe.
alam. Porch, hall. (asv uses ‘‘porch’’; Rsv has ‘‘porch, hall,’’ or ‘‘vestibule.”’) Sometimes equated with ’é/am. I occurs mainly in I Kgs and Ezk as part of a temple or palace. Apparently it was an enclosed porch or entrance hall, since it could have windows (Ezk 41:26) and is compared to a palace (I Kgs 7:8).
The question of the porch is bound up with the reconstruction of the temple, which is uncertain. The older view was that the temple had two rooms like the tabernacle, a main hall and the holy of holies. There was also a porch out front. The view favored by many today is that it was a three-room temple like Syrian temples that have been found. W. F. Albright held that the two pil- lars out front were free standing and totally out- side the structure (Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, Johns Hopkins Press, 1946, pp. 143- 48). More recent study would suggest that the front of the building was really a half-porch or vestibule with an open front. The two side walls may have had windows (though Ezk 41:26 may refer to windows in the front wall of the high main hall that rose above the porch). In any case, the front of the vestibule would have been open with the roof supported by the side walls and the two great pillars in front. This arrangement would have given a very imposing entrance similar to the palaces at Megiddo and elsewhere (D. Ussishkin, ‘*King Solomon’s Palaces,’’ BA 36:85-98).
The height of the porch was surely not 120 (cubits) (II Chr 3:4, kyv) but 20 cubits (some Lxx MSS). Probably the consonants for cubit ’mh be- came reversed and were read as one hundred mh,
A ‘“‘porch”’ or ‘‘hall’’ figures prominently in connection with Solomon's temple, his palace complex, and the temple of Ezk 40-48. It is never used in connection with any other building. Ac- cording to I Kgs 6:3, the hall in front of Sol- omon’s temple was twenty cubits wide and ten cubits deep. Its width equaled that of the temple proper. This entrance hall added a third section to the holy place and holy of holies of the taber- nacle. In the front of this ‘*porch’”’ or ‘‘vestibule”’ were set up the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz (1 Kgs 7:21). The excavators of Arad think that they have found a porch area in the sanctuary at that site. The altar of burnt offering was built in front of the porch (II Chr 8:12), and this juxtaposition of porch and altar is noted elsewhere also (II Chr 15:8: cf. Matt 23:55). In Ezk 8:16 wicked men are seen at the entrance to the temple, ‘‘between the porch and the altar,’’ worshiping the sun with their backs to God. Joel 2:17 describes godly priests weeping and praying ‘‘between the porch and the altar.”
The ‘‘porch’’ of Solomon’s palace complex is not well understood. The ‘‘hall of pillars’’ is as- sociated with the ‘‘house of the forest of Leba- non”’ (I Kgs 7:2, 6). This hal! of pillars, a colon- nade structure, measured fifty cubits by thirty, and may have functioned as an entrance hall to the larger ‘forest of Lebanon’’ building. Another porch or portico stood in front of the hall of pil- lars (v. 6). The same word is used of the ‘‘hall of the throne,” also called the ‘‘hall of judgment’’ (v. 7). The exact relationship of this hall to the other “‘halls’’ or ‘‘porches’’ of v. 6 is prob- lematical. It may have been directly adjacent to the royal residence itself. Verse 8 indicates that Solomon built for Pharaoh’s daughter a house modelled after the ‘‘hall of the throne.”’
The largest number of references to ‘‘porch’’ occur in Ezekiel 40-46 in connection with the hard-visualize temple described by the proph- et. Several times the phrase ‘‘the porch of the gate’ occurs (40:7-8, 15, 39; 44:3). These porches were porticos of the gates between the city and the outer court and the similar gates be- tween the outer court and the inner. These gates are so described that we can compare them to the typical Solomonic gateways unearthed in Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. The ‘‘prince”’ was to enter and leave the temple by way of this “porch of the gate’’ (44:3; 46:2, 8). There were two tables on each side of this porch where the burnt offering, sin offering, and guilt offering were to be slaughtered (40:39). Probably the porch was also the place where the prince ate bread before the Lord (44:3).
In 40:48-49 the dimensions of ‘‘the porch of the temple’ are given as twenty cubits in length and eleven in width. These measurements are almost identical to those of the porch of Sol- omon’s temple. To reach the porch, a staircase flanked by pillars was provided (v. 49).
While many of the details regarding Ezekiel’s ‘‘porch’’ remain obscure, it is clear that greater prominence is attached to this area and that, un- like Solomon's temple, distinct activities are as- sociated with it.
Bibliography: Vincent, L. H., Jerusalem de l’Ancien Testament, II, Paris: J. Gabalda, 1956, p. 428. IDB, I, pp. 513-14, 657. See John B. Taylor, Ezekiel (Tyndale), for a sketch of Ezekiel’s temple. Note especially the possible positions of the pillars in front of the structure or within the entrance to the ‘‘porch.’’ The latter position is favored by the Solomonic palaces at Megiddo.
The plan of the gateways to the courts is better shown in W. Zimmerli Biblische Kommentar zum A.T., Il, pp. 1006, 1040.
’ayil J. Ram, male sheep. Like the word for ‘porch’ (‘alam), ‘‘ram’’ is probably derived
21
45 58 (wl)
from ‘a ‘‘to be first, in front of,’’ pointing to the ram as the leader of the flock. It is mentioned prominently in the Bible. The ram was valued for its wool (II Kgs 3:4) and its tasty meat (Gen 31:38). Jacob presented rams along with other animals as a gift to Esau (Gen 32:15). The ratio of ten female lambs to one ram is typical in raising animals; the males are used for meat and the females kept for the next generation. It is noteworthy that most animals sacrificed were males. The sacrificial laws too were given in a way that was not impractical. Rams or their woo! were included in the tribute payments which the Moabite king Mesha made to Ahab (II Kgs 3:4) and which the Arabians gave to Jehoshaphat (II Chr 17:11). Areas noted for their rams were Bashan and Nebaioth, which is_ probably Nabatea, in spite of the linguistic problem of the ¢ and t. Ram skins dyed red were an important covering for the tabernacle (Ex 25:5).
Rams were frequently offered as sacrifices. When God instituted his covenant with Abram, a ram was one of the animals slain (Gen 15:9). On Mount Moriah the ram caught in the bush became the substitute for the beloved Isaac (Gen 22:13). The ‘tram of ordination’’ was sacrificed at the consecration of Aaron and his sons to the priest- hood (Ex 29:1, 22). When the altar of the taber- nacle was dedicated, rams were among the offer- ings presented (Num 7:15, 21, etc.). Ezekiel visualizes a ram as a burnt offering at the dedica- tion of a new altar (Ezk 43:23, 25).
Rams were offered as regular sacrifices throughout the year. Only a ram was to be used for a guilt offering (Lev 5:15f.; 19:21-22), called a ‘‘ram of atonement’ (Num 5:8). Often rams were among the burnt offerings, linked with bulls and lambs. The order is usually given as bulls, rams, and lambs (Num 28:11; I Chr 29:21). Rams for burnt offerings were accompanied with grain of- ferings and liquid offerings, the amounts of which were less than those used for bulls but greater than those for lambs. They were offered at the new moon festival (Num 28:11-—14), Passover (Num 28:19-20), Pentecost (Lev 23:18), and the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:3, 5). Rams were also slain as peace offerings (Lev 9:4f.). One ram for a peace offering was prescribed to fulfill a nazirite vow (Num 6:14, 17, 19).
Rams are mentioned in several passages that condemn the multiplication of sacrifices designed to please God automatically (I Sam 15:22; Isa 1:11; Mic 6:7). These familiar verses while dem- onstrating the importance of rams as sacrificial animals, indicate the importance of the wor- shiper’s heart attitude.
In Dan 8, the ram symbolizes the kings of Media and Persia. In Ezk 34:17 ‘‘rams’’ are paired with male goats as symbols of the rich and powerful in Israel. These tyrants use their horns
45 38 (wl)
to oppress the weak of the flock (v. 21). The im- plication is that God will conduct a sacrifice and will destroy these fat and strong ones.
’ayil II. Projecting pillar, pilaster. ‘ayil occurs once in I Kgs 6:31 and twenty-one times in Ezk 40-41. According to I Kgs these ‘‘pillars’’ or ‘‘posts’’ were five-sided and were located at the entrance to the inner sanctuary of the temple. As depicted in Ezk, they feature palm tree orna- ments (40:31) and are associated with the gates of the temple area and with the porch of the temple. Examples from the monarchy are described and pictured in Albright, Archaeology of Palestine, Pelican, 1961, pp. 125-26.
’ayil III. Mighty, leader. Some authorities con- sider ’ayil III to be a separate word from ’ayil I, ram (BDB), while others treat it as part of it (KB). There are only five possible usages of this word. The first, in Ex 15:15 (ksv, ‘‘mighty men’’), compares the leaders of Moab with the chiefs of Edom. The plural form in each term shows that the reference is not restricted to the king.
In Ezk, where ‘‘ram”’ is used symbolically (see ‘ayil I, there are three instances of metaphorical usage. Ezekiel 17:13 refers to the ‘‘mighty of the land,’ the leaders and skilled workmen deported from Israel by Nebuchadnezzar. A parallel pas- sage is II Kgs 24:15, which also contains the word ’élé as the preferred reading (Qere), though the the consonants in ’“/é (Kethib) may preserve the original root ‘a! (see ‘ayil I). These ‘“‘leading men’’ were exiled along with King Jehoiachin, his family, and officials.
The singular form occurs in Ezk 31:11, refer- ring to the ‘‘despot of the nations,’’ the king of Babylon who destroyed Assyria’s power. There is some disagreement about Ezk 32:21. Many manuscripts have ‘é/é instead of ’ée/é. If the former is correct, the expression refers to the once ‘‘mighty leaders’’ who have gone down to Sheol.
’ayil IV. Terebinth, oak. Probably from ‘ul ‘‘to be in front, prominent’’ (see ‘ayil I). The ‘‘oak of Paran’’ (El-paran) of Gen 14:6 may have been an important landmark because of its size (cf. the ‘‘oak of Moreh’”’ in Gen 12:6). Some scholars be- lieve that ‘ayil refers to a large tree, not a specific species. The terebinth grows to a thirty foot maximum.
The word is closely related to ‘é/a@, another designation for the terebinth tree. In Isa 1:29-30 the two words seem almost interchangeable. Modern translations alternate between ‘‘oak”’ and ‘‘terebinth.”’
Of its five occurrences, the most important are in Isaiah. According to Isa 1:29, Zion will be ashamed of the oaks and gardens it has desired. This passage 1s clarified by Isa 57:5, which refers
22
to ‘‘burning with lust among the oaks.’’ Accord- ing to Hos 4:13-14, the shade provided by large trees made them desirable as ‘“‘high places,’ i.e. cultic shrines.
Another metaphorical usage (Isa 61:3) calls the faithful in Zion “‘oaks of nghteousness,’’ firmly planted by the Lord to withstand evil.
A possible reference to ‘ayi/ occurs in Ezk 31:14, where tall, proud trees, representing As- syria and Egypt, are felled by the Lord.
*éld. Terebinth (usually the same in ASV, RSv).
The exact identification of this tree is disputed. Most versions translate the word by the term ‘‘oak.’’ The tree is infrequently mentioned in Scripture, being found in six distinct historical situations: where Jacob hid idols (Gen 35:4); where an angel met Gideon (Jud 6:11, 19); a val- ley where David fought Goliath (1 Sam 17:2, 19); where Absalom caught his hair (IJ Sam 18:9); where the unnamed prophet rested (I Kgs 13:14); and where Saul’s bones were buried (I Chr 10:12). It is used as a symbol of judgment (Isa 1:30; 6:13) and under its limbs Israel committed idolatry (Ezk 6:13; Hos 4:13).
’élén. Terebinth, oak. (asv and RSsv_ usually translate ‘‘oak"’ with a marginal note ‘‘tere- binth.”” The ksv erroneously translates as ‘*plain.’’)
It is generally conceded to be the same as ’é/d. The tree figures often in Abraham’s travels (Gen 12:6; 13:18; 14:13; 18:1). A noted one is men- tioned near Ebal and Gerizim (Deut 11:30). The RSV translates the term on one occasion ‘divining oak’’ (Jud 9:37), while asv follows kJv in translat- ing ‘‘the oak of Meonenim."’ Apparently certain such trees became so famous as landmarks that they were generally recognized by all as suitable for specifying rendezvous.
’elam. Porch, portico (K}v ‘‘arches’’). Closely related are ‘uélam and ‘ayil, II. ’élam occurs some sixteen times, only in Ezk 40:16-36 and always in the plural. These ‘‘porches,’’ or ‘‘ves- tibules’’ or ‘‘colonnades”’ are associated with the guard rooms and side pillars of the gates of the temple (vv. 16, 21, 29, 33, 36). They were appar- ently side enclosures along the entire length of the gateway, or enlarged areas at the end of the gate. See the bibliography for suggested plans of these gateways.
’ayyala. Doe, hind. This noun is the feminine of ’ayydal ‘stag, deer.”’ It is known in Ugaritic also ('y/t). All of its eleven occurrences are in poetic passages. Three times reference is made to the doe giving birth. In Ps 29:9 a thunderstorm called ‘*the voice of the Lord’’ makes the doe go into labor (cf. Job 39:1). An alternative view as old as R. Lowth (1815) is cited by Dahood though rejected by him (in AB, Psalms I, p. 179). It
reads ‘ayyalot ‘‘does’’ as ‘élét or ‘élét *‘oaks” and translates the line ‘makes the oaks bend.”’ It is not only difficult to have the reading that the storm makes the does bear prematurely, but also the parallel line speaks of the storm stripping the forests—which would favor the reading ‘‘oaks”’ (so the NIV). During a severe drought, the doe gives birth only to abandon her young (Jer 14:5). This is apparently unusual owing to the affection- ate nature of the doe (Prov 5:19).
Another trio of verses refers to the doe as a surefooted animal, able to make its way on high, dangerous terrain. The Psalmist rejoices that God has made his feet like a doe’s feet in preparation for battle (18:33 [H 34] = II Sam 22:34). Habak- kuk uses the same imagery to exult in the security God gives (3:19). When Jacob blesses Naphtali, he predicts that the tribe will be *‘a doe let loose”’ (Gen 49:21), roaming free and secure. Naphtali’s part in the victory over Sisera may be in view (Jud 4:6; 5:18).
Twice in the Song of Solomon (2:7; 3:5) the daughters of Jerusalem are adjured ‘‘by the ga- zelles or by the does of the field.” This is proba- bly a word play on taking an oath using ** Lorpb of hosts’’ and ‘‘god.’’ ‘“‘Gazelles’’ is identical to ‘hosts’? (s°ba'ét) and ‘‘does” (‘aylét) is very close to 'él6him.
The phrase ‘‘to the doe of the morning”’ intro- ducing Ps 22 probably refers to the melody to be used.
Bibliography: Howie, Carl Gordon, ‘The East Gate of Ezekiel’s Temple Enclosure and the Solomonic Gateway of Megiddo,’’ BASOR 117: 13-19, esp. p. 16.
H.W.
46 “S38 (‘dlay) perhaps, suppose.
This adverb is often associated with personal or national crises. Sarah expressed hope that Hagar would produce a child for her (Gen 16:2), and Balak hoped to curse Israel through Balaam (Num 22:6, 11). Jacob feared that Isaac would discover his deceit (Gen 27:12), and Job wondered if perhaps his children had cursed God (1:5). ’alay also expresses mockery (Isa 47:12; I Kgs 18:27).
H.W.
ayn (alam) I. See no. 4Sc.
47 poss ('alam) II, but, however, nevertheless.
This strong adversative is found ten times in Job, where Satan argues that God should test Job (1:11; 2:5) and where Job and his friends voice deep differences (5:8; 11:5; 13:3). God's sover- eign will can be expressed through this term (Gen 48:19; Ex 9:16). Contrasts between past and pre- sent are emphasized (Gen 28:19; I Kgs 20:23).
H.W.
48 8 ('wn) I.
23
48 338 (wn)
Assumed root of the following.
48a TIN ('dwen) trouble. 48b TD°NM (f° anim) toil. ’"awen. Trouble, sorrow, idolatry, wickedness, in-
iquity, emptiness. (RSV and NEB prefer ‘‘evil ,’’ and ‘mischief’ over kijv’s_ favorite, ‘‘iniqui- ty..’) The primary meaning of the word seems to have two facets: a stress on trouble which moves on to wickedness, and an emphasis on emptiness which moves on to idolatry. The word is used eighty-five times. A noun from an identical root ’wn II is pronounced ’6n and means “‘vigor, wealth’ (q.v.).
The root does not occur in verbal forms; nor- mally it functions as a masculine noun, some- times as an adjective.
One of the basic meanings of ’dwen is *‘trou- ble’’ which is clearly shown in Gen 35:18. Just before she died, Rachel named her newborn son, Ben-oni, (son of sorrow). In Deut 26:14 and Hos 9:4 ‘Gwen designates mourning in association with death. 'dwen is sometimes in proximity to ‘amal “‘toil, labor’’ (q.v.). In Job 5:6; Ps 90:10; and Hab 1:3, 'dwen is parallel to ‘Gdmdal and em- phasizes physical trouble. In Isa 10:1, Ps 7:14 (H 15] (cf. Job 4:8) ‘amail is the result of "Gwen in the sense that sin brings trouble. The relationship be- tween ‘Gwen and ‘amal is shown further by the tendency of the latter to drift to the connotation of deceitful words as in Ps 140:10. Also, both words occur with other words for deceit in Job 15:35; Ps 10:7; 36:3-4; 55:11; and Isa 59:4. Ob- serve in Job 36:21 that ’Gwen is contrasted with another word for affliction ‘dni and both here and in Job 34:36 ‘Gwen would seem to point to decep- tive planning or speaking which leads to sorrow or rebellion.
In this sense of deception, 'Gwen is tied to thoughts and words in Prov 17:4; Isa 32:6; Ezk 11:2; Hos 12:12 and possibly Hos 6:8 (see Lxx). From this base ‘dwen becomes a label for idolatry in Isa 66:3 and the phrase *‘Beth-aven,”™ probably a name of shame for Bethel (Hos 5:8; 10:5, 8; cf. Amos 1:5; Ezk 30:17). Also the word describes idols in Isa 41:29, and seems to denote non-existence in Amos 5:5.
This trend of meaning in ’dwen is reinforced by its proximity to standard Hebrew words for de- ception, fraud, and falseness in Prov 6:12, 18; 19:28; 22:8; Isa 29:20; Zech 10:2. It may be that this strand of meaning comes from a possible early kinship to ’dyin, which means “‘nothing.”’
In by far the greater numbers of instances, the versions prefer to translate ‘'dwen as “‘evil,’’ *‘in- iquity,"’ or ‘“‘wicked.*’ But an interesting term occurs about twenty times in Job, Ps, and Prov; it is workers of iniquity (’dwen) and may designate men skilled in magic or idolatrous ritual.
Generally, biblical theologians have given little
49 38 ('wn)
attention to ‘Gwen as a contributor to an under- standing of sin. Since the word stresses the plan- ning and expression of deception and points to the painful aftermath of sin, it should be noted more.
t©’anim. Toil. This masculine noun occurs in the plural, possibly to intensify the force of the word occurring only in Ezk 24:12. Translators have been unable to agree on its precise meaning, SO we have ‘‘lies’’ (kJv), ‘‘in vain’’ (Rsv), and ‘*corrosion’’ (NEB).
Bibliography: Gelin, Albert, Sin in the Bible, Desclee, 1964. Guillaume, A., ‘‘The Root ’wn in Hebrew,’ JTS 34: 62-64. Porubcan, Stefan, Sin in the Old Testament, Rome: Herder, 1963. Quell, G., Sin, London: Adam and Charles Black, 1951. Smith, C. R., The Bible Doctrine of Sin, London: Epworth, 1953. TDOT, I, pp. 140- 46. THAT, I, pp. 81-83.
G.H.L.
49 338 ('wn) II. Assumed root of the follow- ing. 49a TiN (‘6n) vigor, wealth.
This root occurs as a noun only twelve times. In Gen 49:3; Deut 21:17; Job 40:16; Ps 78:51; 105:36, the word designates reproductive power as evidenced in the firstborn son. In Isa 40:26-27 the creative power of God is highlighted. Physical Strength and/or wealth is denoted in Job 18:12; 20:10; Hos 12:9.
G.H.L.
50 S°Pi8 (‘dpir) Ophir.
This proper name refers to the eleventh son of Joktan (Gen 10;29) and to a region famous for its gold. The name is mentioned with ‘‘Sheba’’ and **Havilah”’ in Gen 10:28-29 and I Chr 1:22-23. Since those two designations are place names, some authorities feel that the person ‘*Ophir”’ must be connected with the place. Others dis- avow any relationship between the two.
Ophir is first mentioned in connection with David, who had amassed three thousand talents of gold from Ophir for the construction of Sol- omon's temple (I Chr 29:4). Solomon joined with Hiram of Tyre to send ships from Ezion-geber to Ophir in quest of the same gold (I Kgs 9:28). These ships also brought a large number of almug trees and precious stones (1 Kgs 10:11), and quantities of silver, ivory, apes, and baboons (peacocks? I Kgs 10:22). Actually, v. 22 does not mention Ophir, but the ships of Tarshish were most likely the large vessels that traveled to Ophir every three years (cf. If Chr 9:21). InI Kgs 22:49 King Jehoshaphat built ‘‘ships of Tarshish’’ to journey to Ophir in search of gold, but this
venture in the century after Solomon came to grief before the ships could leave Ezion-geber. Some scholars believe that *‘Tarshish’’ normally means boats used for carrying ore or metals.
A reference to the gold of Ophir has been found on a preexilic sherd uncovered at Tell Qasileh. The inscription reads, ‘Gold of Ophir for Beth- horon, thirty shekels’’ (B. Maisler, ‘“Two Hebrew Ostraca from Tell Qasile,’”» JNES 10:265-67). This find indicates that at least one king after Jehoshaphat was successful in procuring addi- tional Ophir gold.
The value of the gold of Ophir is implied in poetic passages. In Isa 13:12 it is compared to ‘*pure gold’’ (cf. Job 28:15-16). In Ps 45:9 [H 10] the queen is depicted as clothed in gold from Ophir. In Job 22:24 the word ‘*Ophir’’ is under- stood to mean “‘the gold of Ophir.”
The site of Ophir has not been conclusively identified. Several theories have been formu- lated, taking into account the products identified with Ophir and the three-year length of the jour- ney. Most likely the three years refers to one entire year and parts of two others. Perhaps the best case can be made for locating Ophir in the Somali Republic, a country on the horn of Africa, once called Punt. The products obtained in Ophir are known in Africa, and the Hebrew words for the two kinds of monkeys (apes and baboons?) are related to Egyptian words (qf and ky).
A different theory would place Ophir in India, where the commodities in question were also available, particularly if ‘‘almug’’ wood is san- dalwood. Some identify Ophir with Supara, sixty miles north of Bombay. Trade between India and the Persian Gulf is attested from the second mil- lennium 8.c. Once Jerome translated Ophir as ‘India’ (Job 28:16), reflecting a strong tradition in his day.
A third alternative is the southwestern coast of Arabia. The close relationship between Ophir and Sheba and Havilah in Gen 10:29 supports this identification. Ma‘afir in Yemen has_ been suggested as a site for Ophir. This theory does not preclude the possibility that some of the commodities were originally brought to Ophir from India.
Bibliography: Albright, William F., Archae- ology and the Religion of Israel, Johns Hopkins, 1953, pp. 133-35, 212.
H.W.
PIN (is) to hurry, urge, be pressed (with the same meaning in Arabic).
This verb is used four times in Prov to discour- age haste to get rich (28:20) and hasty words or
actions (29:20; 19:2; 21:5). In the famous Josh 10:13 the sun was in no hurry to set. One’s territory can be too ‘‘confining’’ (Josh
17:15), and persons can be ‘‘urged"’ into action (Ex 5:13; Gen 19:15). H.W.
“sis (‘désar). See no. 154a.
52. "58 (ér) to be or become light, shine; in the Hiphil stem, to give light, cause to shine. Cor- responds to Ugaritic ’r ‘‘to be bright; to illu- mine,”’ and Akkadian urru ‘‘day.”’
It occurs infrequently in the Qal and Niphal but some forty-five times in the Hiphil. It refers to the shining of the sun, but its metaphorical usages are more common.
Derivatives T38) (Or) light. tsais) (ord) I, light. mais (6rd) UH, herb (only in II Kgs 4:39). “18 (‘ur) flame. TAS) (urim) Unim. T31N’ (ma’ér) luminary. MN (m°'ard) (light) hole.
§2a 52b 52c
52d S2e \2F 52g
The concept of light in Scripture is important, dealing with personal and impersonal forces on both literal and metaphorical levels. Light is closely related to life and happiness, which may account for the frequent comparisons between God and light. Since the ancient world often wor- shiped the sun, God's role as creator of light is stressed. Eventually, he will make the sun un- necessary (Isa 60:19~20).
Light is frequently used as an indicator of time, separating day from night (Gen 1:5). The em- phasis is on the shining of the sun in the early morning (Gen 44:3; Jud 16:2), so that “‘light’’ can sometimes be translated ‘‘dawn™ (Neh 8:3). A distinction may be drawn between ‘‘daybreak”’ and the ‘‘daylight’’ that follows (Jud 19:26) the rising of the sun (Isa 60:1-3). Amos (8:9) men- tions a judgment of darkness that will strike Israel ‘in broad daylight.”’
Light is of course associated with light-bearing bodies, but it is distinct from them, as seen in its creation apart from the luminaries (Gen 1:3). The sun and the moon are the ‘‘greater light’’ and the “lesser light’? (Gen 1:16: Ps 136:7), and the stars are closely associated as ‘‘stars of light’’ (Ps 148:3), ‘‘Every passage that speaks of the shining (‘6r in the Hiphil) or the light (’6r) of the sun (Gen 1:14-16; Isa 30:20; 60:19; Jer 31:35; Ezk 32:8; Ps 136:7-9) also refers to the light of the moon and sometimes also of the stars’’ (TDOT, I, p. 151). These heavenly luminaries are an integral part of the wonder of the cosmos as founded by the Creator and serve as a clock to regulate the seasons (Gen 1:14; Ps 104:19; Jer 31:35f.). The oT
25
52 S38 (6r
avoids isolating the sun as ‘‘the light’’ lest the Hebrews succumb to the tendency to worship it (cf. Job 31:26-27). Another of God’s lights was the pillar of fire that illumined the night for the Israelites during the wilderness wanderings (Ex 13:21; Ps 105:39). This was probably more awe- some than lightning, which also displayed the glory of God (Ps 77:18 [H 19]; 97:4; Job 36:32).
Manmade lights included the sacred lampstand in the tabernacle (Num 4:9, 16; 8:2) which cast its light in the holy place. Lamps burning olive oil were highly valued for use in people’s homes (Prov 13:9).
‘Or 1s used metaphorically when a person’s face or the eyes are viewed as light-bearing ob- jects. Sometimes literal eyesight is intended (Ps 38:10 [H 11], probably also the difficult I Sam 14:27), but more often the ‘light of the face’’ refers to a cheerful face expressing good will (Job 29:24). The favor of a king is seen in his face (Prov 16:15), and “the light of God’s face’’ indi- cates divine approval (Ps 44:3 (H 4]; 89:15 (H 16}).
In the famous priestly blessing of Num 6:25, the Hiphil stem of the verb is used in a similar context: "‘The Lord make his face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you.”’ This time-honored expression occurs five times in the Psalms, in- voking God's saving and restoring presence on behalf of his servants (Ps 31:16 [H 17]; 67:1; [H 2); 80:3, 7, 19 [H 80:4, 8, 20); 119:135). In Dan 9:17 the great statesman implores the Lord of mercy to let his face shine upon his sanctuary and reverse the desolate conditions in Jerusalem. The expression finds a parallel in Ugaritic, **the coun- tenace of the sun shines upon me,’’ meaning *'! enjoy the favor of the king.’
Light can also symbolize general “‘life’’ or ‘*prosperity.’’ ‘To see the light”’ is *‘to be born”’ (Job 3:16), and the ‘‘light of life’’ is a poetic refer- ence to being alive (Job 33:30; Ps 56:13 [H 14)).
Some, however, contend that this compound should be rendered ‘‘the land of the living” be- cause this is the meaning of the word in Phoeni- cian. It makes excellent sense in such passages as Job 33:30. The word ‘‘Jand”* is found in Ps 116:9, a close parallel to Ps 56:13 {H 14]. Dahood (Psalms, I, I] in AB) suggests the meaning ‘“‘land of eternal life.”
In Ps 36:9 [H 10] ‘‘light’’ is parallel to ‘‘the fountain of life.”’ In line with this usage Dahood argues that ‘‘to see light’’ is often really to see the light of God's face in immortality (Ps 36:9 |H 10); and contra Ps 49:19 {H 20]). This is the expres- sion in Isa 53:11 when the .xx and DSS texts speak in this vein of immortality for the suffering servant (cf. Ps 17:15).
Job 22:28 describes prosperity as light shining on one’s ways, and a few chapters later ‘‘good”’ is compared with “‘light’’ (30:26). Unfortunately,
52 38 (Or)
Job has encountered ‘evil’ and ‘‘darkness,”” a set of contrasts in line with Amos’s portrayal of the day of the Lord as one of darkness and not light (5:18). A day without light speaks of trouble and calamity.
Prosperity and life are closely linked with joy, SO it 1S appropriate to find ‘“*happiness”’ as a meaning for “‘light."" The two concepts are paral- lel in Ps 97:11. In Est 8:16 (using ‘6rd) “‘lght”’ ts one of several words describing the relief and joy felt by the Jews in Persia when the decree to destroy them had been rescinded. Proverbs 15:30 speaks of the light of the eyes that makes the heart happy.
Another prominent metaphorical usage relates light to instruction. When a man finds wisdom, his face lights up (Eccl 8:1). The teaching of one’s parents (Prov 6:23) as well as the word of God are a lamp to one’s feet, a light to one’s path (Ps 119:105, 130). In Psalm 19, which compares the written Scriptures (o nature and to the sun in par- ticular, the commandments of the Lord are said to enlighten the eyes (v. 8 [H 9]). Most likely the challenge to Israel ‘to walk in the light of the Lord’’ denotes adherence to the laws and teach- ings of God (Isa 2:3, 5; cf. 51:4). In a word, whereas darkness is associated with death (Job 3:5; 10:21; Ps 88:6; 91:6), failure and suffering (Jer 28:12; Amos 5:18, 20; Lam 3:2), folly (Job 37:19; 38:2: Eccl 2:13), and sin (Job 24:16: Ps 74:20; Prov 2:13; Jer 49:9), light is associated with life (Mal 3:20 [H 4:2]), salvation and pros- perity (Job 29:3; Isa 58:8; Ps 36:10 [H 9]), wisdom (Ps 19:9 (H 8]; 119:105, 130: Prov 6:23; Dan 5:11), justice (Isa 42:1-3, 6; 49:6; 51:4f.: Mic 7:8).
The ultimate development is to compare God himself with light. The Lord ts my light and my salvation (Ps 27:1), though a flaming fire to purge out wickedness (Isa 10:17). Isaiah describes the Messiah as a great light shining in a land of deep darkness (9:2 [H 1]). He will be *‘a light to the nations’’ so that God’s salvation may reach the ends of the earth (42:6; 49:6).
Though the oT 1s careful not to identify God and the sun, the shining glory of God is described in terms of the sun (Ezk 43:2). He is the resplen- dent one (Ps 76:4 [H 5]) with healing in his wings, or rays (Mal 4:2 [H 3:20]). In the future age of bliss the glory of the Lord will nse upon us (Isa 60:!-3) and he, not the sun, will be an everlasting light (Isa 60:19-20).
’arim. Urim. This word occurs seven times in the oT, only in the plural. A presumed singular ‘ar “light (asv “flame,” Isa 50:11), whence ‘*fire’’ (Isa 31:9; 44:16). ’“rim meant also east, region of light (Isa 24:15 Ntv. NASB marg.). In all but two cases the Urim appear with the Thum- mim. Both were placed in the high priest's ‘breastplate of judgment’’ (Ex 28:30: Lev 8:8;
26
see hdshen) and were involved in obtaining oracular judgments from God (Num 27:21).
Although ‘urim probably derives from ’dér **be light’* (q.v.), Ugaritic 'r (so BDB, p. 22), other possibilities include ‘drar ‘‘curse,’’ and ‘dard ‘pluck off" (KB, p. 23). Only in postexilic times do Urim and Thummim occur without the article or its equivalent, indicating that despite KJv capitalization, these were originally common nouns, meaning ‘“‘lights and perfections’’ (see tamam), as the Lxx and later Greek photismoi kai teleotétes, or, more freely, délosis kai alétheia ‘illumination and truth.”
The Urim and Thummim appear in Scripture without explanatory identification, except that they were to be put ‘‘in the breastplate ... and be upon Aaron's heart’? (Ex 28:30), which may suggest that these are none other than descriptive terms for the twelve precious stones of the im- mediately preceding context, inscribed with the names of the tribes of Israel (vv. 17-21), and set in the breastplate of judgment upon Aaron s heart (v. 29). But cf. Lev 8:8 which seems to say they are additional to the twelve. Josephus assigns oracular characteristics to the twelve stones, claiming they would shine when Israel was to be victorious in battle (Antiquities, 3.8.9). Talmudic tradition suggests that the Shekinah would il- lumine letters in the tribal names to spell out rev- elations, (Yoma, 73,a—b; although five of the twenty-two Hebrew letters do not appear in these twelve names). Actually, the combining of **dreams, Urim, and prophets’ (I Sam 28:6) indi- cates that, even as the first and last terms denote revelations to the mind of the petitioner through a prophetic intermediary, so Urim denotes a corrte- spondingly personal revelation, through the mind of that priestly intermediary who wore the shin- ing stones of the breastpiece in Israel's sanctuary (cf. Moses’ association of Urim and Thummim with the tribe of Levi, Deut 33:8, and David's seeking divine guidance through the man who wore the priestly surplice (’épdéd, q.v.) I Sam 23:9-12: 30:7-8. to which, in turn, the breastplate was attached (Ex 28:25-28).
Negative critics presume that the ‘uwrim were images, magical dice, or divining disks, flipped like coins, giving a “‘yes’’ answer should the light (‘ar) side come up (cf. IDB, IV, p. 739 and the RSV emendation of I Sam 14:41). But tom does not mean ‘‘dark.”’ And the priestly oracles were not limited to yes-or-no answers (Jud 18:5-6; II Sam 5:19) but provided detailed explanations (Jud 1:1; I Sam 10:22; If Sam 5:23). Scripture condemns pagan, mechanical divination (Hos 4:12). Mention of official oracles ceases after the time of David (replaced by prophets?), and the breastpiece with its Umm seems to have perished in the exile (cf. Ezr 2:63; cf. Josephus’s claim of a Maccabean destruction, Antiquities, 3.8, 9).
53
ma’or. Light, luminary. This masculine noun isa close synonym of ’6r, but occurs only twenty times. It is used of the lampstand in the taberna- cle several times (Ex 35:14; Lev 24:2; Num 4:9, 16).
‘ora J. Light, joy. This feminine form of ’6r occurs only three times in the ot (Ps 139:12; Isa 26:19; Est 8:16).
Bibliography: Lindblom, J., ‘‘Lot-Casting in the Old Testament,” VT 12: 164-78. Mangan, Edward A., “The Urim and Thummim,’” CBQ 1:133-38. May, H.G., **Ephod and Anil,’ AJSL 56:44-69. Richardson, TWB, p. 129. Robertson, Edward, ‘The ‘Urim and Thummim; What Were They?” VT 14: 67-74. TDNT, IX, pp. 316-27. TDOT, I, pp. 147-66. THAT, I, pp. 84-90.
H
min ('d6r). See no. 4la.
*rIs (‘ut) consent, agree (Niphal only).
m8 ('arim). See no. 52e.
54. tS (az) then.
Derivative
54a TIS (mé’az) since.
in time past, long since,
This adverb appears 130 times. It is related to Ugaritic idk “‘then.’’ Its use in Hebrew is em- phatic, occurring in many important contexts and often in poetic passages. As a temporal adverb, it can refer to both the past and present. After the great victory over Egypt at the Red Sea, ‘‘then Moses sang this song to the Lorp”’ (Ex 15:1; cf. Num 21:17). “*Then”’ introduces Joshua’s request for the sun to stand still (Josh 10:12). When the temple was dedicated ‘‘then Solomon assembled all Israel (I Kgs 8:1).
'€z also occurs in future contexts, specifying the time when the eyes of the blind will be opened (Isa 35:5) or when the return from captivity will bring ecstasy (Isa 60:5). After Abraham's servant had sought a wife among his relatives, ‘‘then’’ he would be free from his oath (Gen 24:41; Ex 12:44).
The victory songs of Ex 15 and Jud 5 use ‘dz emphatically. When news about Israel’s tinumph was heard, “‘then the chiefs of Edom were dis- mayed™’ (Ex 15:15). In Jud 5:8, 11, 13 it is used to describe the sequence of the battle with the Canaanites.
‘‘Then” can also express strict logical se- quence. If Israel keeps the Sabbath, ‘‘then’’ they will find delight in the Lord (Isa 58:14). Apart from meditating in the law, David claims, “‘I would have perished’ (Ps 119:92; cf. II Kgs 13:19).
55 358 ('éz6b)
27
55 3538 (’éz6b)
mé’az. Since. Derived from min ‘az *“‘from then,’’ as in Jer 44:18. It occurs eighteen times, seven times as a preposition or conjunction (Ruth 2:7; Gen 39:5). In the absolute it is used of the re- cent past (IJ Sam 15:34) or the more remote past. In Isa, a cluster of verses prove that God has ‘long since’* predicted the future (44:8; 45:21; 48:3, S, 7,8). God's throne was established **from of old’’ (Ps 93:2), which looks beyond creation (Prov 8:22).
H.W.
hyssop. (ASV and RSv similar.)
This word occurs ten times, primarily in the Pentateuch. The English meaning is derived from the Greek “voowxoc, which is only an attempt to transliterate the Hebrew. Hyssop is a small plant that grows on walls (I Kgs 4:33 [H 5:13]), proba- bly to be identified with marjoram of the mint family. It was used to apply blood and water in purification ceremonies.
The importance of hyssop stems from the Exodus. God told Moses to have each Israelite family slay a lamb, dip a bunch of hyssop in the blood in the basin and then smear some of the blood on the sides and top of the doorframe (Ex 12:22). When the Angel of the Lord passed by and saw the blood, he spared the firstborn son in that home. Thus, the hyssop functioned as a brush to apply the blood.
In Lev 14:4—6 hyssop is used in a purification ceremony for a man cured of leprosy. The hys- sop, along with a live bird, cedar wood and scar- let yarn, was dipped in the blood of a bird killed over running water. The man being cleansed was then sprinkled seven times with this mixture of blood and water. The same procedure applied to a house which had a “‘leprous”™ outbreak (likely mildew, see sGra‘at). It too was to be sprinkled seven times with the same mixture (Lev 14:49- 52).
Similar was the procedure for persons or ob- jects contaminated by contact with a corpse. Special ashes for purification were prepared by burning the body of a sacrificed red heifer and throwing on top of it cedar wood, hyssop. and scarlet yarn (Num 19:6). Whenever anyone or anything had been near a dead body, running water was added to the purification ashes, and hyssop was used to sprinkle the contaminated person and objects on the third and seventh days of their ritual uncleanness (Num 19:17-19). Any unclean person who failed to comply with these regulations was to be cut off from Israel.
In the Mishnah (H. Danby, Oxford, 1933) there are seventeen pages of rules for preparing and sprinkling this water (pp. 697-714). Needless to say, some of the rules give minutiae even to the ridiculous. The spiritual character, however, is
56 bts (‘azal)
lacking. These rules represent the ideas of the Pharisees of Jesus’ day.
The combination of cedar, hyssop, and scarlet found in Lev and Num ts intriguing. Cedar and hyssop seem to represent the most magnificent tree and most insignificant bush respectively (1 Kgs 4:33 [H 5:13]). Cedar is a symbol of strength, splendor, and longevity and it may emphasize the importance of these rites.
In Heb 9:19 there is reference to Moses taking the blood of calves, water, scarlet wool, and hys- sop in order to sprinkle the scroll of the covenant and all the people as he established the Sinai cov- enant, though the scarlet and the hyssop are not expressly mentioned in Ex 24:6-8.
When David in repentance cried out to God, ‘*Purify me with hyssop, and I shall be clean’’ (Ps 51:7 [H 9}), he referred to the laws of Num 19. He knew that if he were not cleansed, he would be cut off from his people.
Perhaps the mention of the hyssop plant given to Chnst on the cross (Jn 19:29) refers symboli- cally to the infinite purification that was accom- plished through his death.
Bibliography: Harrison, R. K., ‘The Biblical Problem of Hyssop,’’ EQ 26: 218-24. Shewell- Cooper, W. E., ‘‘Flora’’ ZPEB, II, p. 570.
H.W.
See no. 59a. See no. S5l1d.
"ew (’éz6r). M398 (azkaryd).
56 338 (‘dzal)
This verb is used of a buyer who brags about his purchase after he goes his way (Prov 20:14). Israel also shifts its position, moving from one ally to another (Jer 2:36).
Three times the sense is “‘to be exhausted.”’ Water ‘evaporates’ (Job 14:11), Israel's strength was depleted (Deut 32:36), and Saul's bread was gone (I Sam 9:7).
Combined with ‘éz ‘‘goat’’ it makes the word ‘aza’zél *‘Azazel,’’ “‘the goat of going out’ or ‘Scapegoat’ of Lev 16.
to go away, about.
H.W.
*08 (‘dzan) I, listen, give ear.
This verb is used only in the Hiphil stem, in- dicating it is denominative.
Parent Noun S7Ja 8 (‘Ozen) ear. Derivative S7b MK O('Gzén)
'd@zan occurs primarily in poetic books as a parallel to the verbs shadma‘ *‘to hear,’’ and hiq- shib *‘to pay attention.’’ Even where it is used in
implements, tools.
basically non-poetic books, it occurs in poetic passages, such as the songs of Lamech (Gen 4:23), of Moses (Deut 32:1) and of Deborah (Jud 5:3). The vast majority of its forty-two occur- rences are in imperatival forms.
’ozen. Ear, hearing. This noun occurs almost two hundred times and is applied most often to man, though it is used of a dog’s ears (Prov 26:17) and of a sheep's ear, partially rescued from a lion (Amos 3:12). Anthropomorphically, God is said to possess ‘‘ears’’ or “‘hearing.’’
The ear can perhaps best be studied under three headings: as an organ of hearing, as a part of the body subject to symbolic actions, and as a sign of responsiveness and understanding. These usages are frequentby interrelated.
The ear as the physical organ of hearing has been implanted by God (Ps 94:9), who himself can hear. The Psalmist uses a teleological argu- ment for the nature of God from the human ear: ‘*He who planted the ear, does he not hear?”’ (Ps 94:9). In contrast, the manmade ears of idols hear nothing at all (Ps 115:6; 135:17). When the physi- cal organ is mentioned, frequently “‘hearing”’ 1s a
good translation for ‘‘ears."’ **To speak in the ears’’ of someone is ‘‘to speak in his hearing”’ (Gen 44:18).
Since the ear represents hearing and obedi- ence, it is involved in important symbolic ac- tions. If a slave chose to serve his master perma- nently, his ear was pierced with an awl (Ex 21:6: Deut 15:17; cf. Ps 40:6 [H 7]). By this legal act, the slave was bound to obedience for his entire life. At the ordination of Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, some blood from the sacrificial ram was placed on the lobes of their right ears, thumbs, and big toes (Lev 8:23-24; Ex 29:20). Similar was the case of a person cleansed from leprosy. Blood as well as olive oil was applied to his right ear, thumb, and big toe on the eighth day of his purification ceremonies (Lev 14:14, 17).
Earrings were apparently given by the groom to the bride at a marriage (Ezk 16:12) (The ‘‘ear- ring’’ for Rebekah [Gen 24:22 kJv] was a nose ring), but they are associated with idolatry inGen 35:4. The Israelites tore off their gold earrings so that Aaron could make a golden calf (Ex 32:2-3), As a sign of complete rejection, the ears and nose were mutilated by the rampaging enemy (Ezk 23:25).
Most references to the ear or hearing involve a response from the hearer. To hear, or to incline the ear, means to pay close attention, e.g. to the words of the wise (Prov 22:17). How often God pleads with wayward Israel to listen and heed his warnings in view of impending judgment (Hos 5:1; Jer 13:15). Even heaven and earth are called to listen as witnesses of the covenant promises of Israel (Deut 32:1; Isa 1:2). Predictions of national
disasters are said to make the ears ring or tingle, so shocking is the message (I Sam 3:11; II Kgs 21:12; Jer 19:3).
Twice, the term “hardness” or ‘‘heaviness”’ is applied to the ears of Israel. They have stopped their ears from hearing the word of God through the prophets (Zech 7:11-12), for God had brought on them judicial deafness (Isa 6:10; cf. II Chr 24:19; Neh 9:30). Like the idols, the nation had ears but could not hear (Jer 5:21). Once the people's ears are called ‘‘uncircumcised,’’ closed to the words of their covenant God (Jer 6:10).
Hearing and understanding are closely linked on occasion (Job 13:1), and *‘ears’’ can almost mean ‘‘mind’’ (Job 33:15). Horst noted: *‘The ears are regarded as the instrument by which speech and orders are noted, not the brain, as with us. Hence the ear is the seat of ‘insight’ ”’ (TDNT, V, p. 546). Proverbs 23:13 condemns re- fusal to hear the cry of the poor and thus remain ignorant of their plight. But the man who turns a deaf ear to talk of murder is commended (Isa 33:15). The importance of the organ to one's spiritual life is stated by Job: **Does not the ear test words, as the palate tastes food (Job 12:11).
Many references relate to God's ability to hear and take action. The arrogance of Assyria came to his ears and resulted in its destruction (Isa 37:29). Most passages deal with God's response to prayer. The Psalmist frequently pleads with God to hear his cry for help (Ps 80:1 [H 2}; 54:2 [H 4]) and save him from the enemy. At the dedi- cation of the temple, Solomon asked that God's ears would ever be attentive to the prayers of his people (II Chr 6:40). Danie! turned toward that temple to ask God to incline his ear and do some- thing about the ruins of Jerusalem (Dan 9:18). When prayer is not answered, it is not because God has become hard of hearing (Isa 59:1). The sin of Israel cut them off from his saving response (Deut 1:45).
‘To uncover the ear’ (gala 'dzen) is ‘‘to dis- close important information,’ such as a plot against the king (I Sam 22:8, 17). In a legal con- text, it means ‘‘to bring a matter to one’s atten- tion’’ (Ruth 4:4). When God is the subject, *‘un- cover the ear’’ means ‘to reveal’’ truth to his servants (I Sam 9:15; II Sam 7:27).
Bibliography: Richardson, TWB, p. 104. TDNT, V, pp. 546-51. THAT, I, pp. 95-97.
H.W.
"8 ('dzan) II, weigh, test, prove. Only in the Piel (Eccl 12:9).
58a TiN (m’'2zn)
Always occurring in the dual, m6d’z°nayim indi- cates a pair of scales. Scales were used to weigh silver at a purchase (Jer 32:10). Accurate scales were God's delight (Lev 19:36; Prov 11:1), and
balances, scales.
59 "I8 (azar) to gird, clothe.
59 “38 (azar)
the prophets condemned cheating merchants (Amos 8:5; Mic 6:11).
Job wanted his case weighed by God (Job 31:6). God is able to weigh the hills on balances (Isa 40:12), and he regards nations as the dust on scales (Isa 40:15).
The balances of antiquity were a simple bar suspended at the middle with pans on each end. For a picture of an Egyptian balance, see L. M. Petersen, ‘Balance’ in ZPEB.
The weights were called ’dbdanim (q.v.) stones, being usually made of stone shaped and ground. The chief opportunity for cheating lay in the weights used.
H.W.
PIs ('dzéq). See no. 577b.
(ASV, RSV trans- late similarly.)
Derivative 59a ot itsS ('éz6r) waistband.
This verb usually occurs in the Qal or Piel, once in the Niphal and three times in the Hithpael, primarily in the poetic books. Often military preparation is in view.
’éz0r. Waistband, belt. Of its fourteen occur- rences, eight are in Jer 13:1-11. Elijah wears a leather belt around his hairy garment (II Kgs 1:8), but Jeremiah dons a tight-fitting linen waistband (13:1, 11). He left it to rot by the Euphrates as a symbol of the corrupt nature of Israel (Jer 13:10-11).
The ‘*belt’’ or ‘‘waistband”’ characterized sol- diers' dress. The Assyrians did not wear a loose belt as they swept south (Isa 5:27; Ezk 23:15). God is the one who prepares or girds the Psalmist with strength for battle (Ps 18:32 (H 33], 39 {H 40] = II Sam 22:40). God girded Cyrus, perhaps equipping him with armor (Isa 45:5). The weak are armed with strength, but the arrogant are shattered (I Sam 2:4). God challenges the nations to gird themselves for battle, but they face certain defeat (Isa 8:9).
Sometimes the military significance is replaced by a more general ‘‘prepare for action.’’ God commands Job to gird up his loins like a man and meet God's arguments (Job 38:3; 40:7). And Jeremiah is given the same order in preparation for a controversial ministry (Jer 1:17).
When God turned David's mourning into danc- ing, he clothed (girded) him with gladness (Ps 30:11 [H 12]). A similar metaphor characterizes the Messiah, who wears righteousness and truth around his waist (Isa 11:5).
In Ps 65:6 ([H 7] God as Creator is said to be ‘*girded with might.’’ The King of the universe 1s ‘clothed with majesty,’ *‘girded with strength” (Ps 93:1).
60 M8 Cah)
Bibliography: Wright, G. E., “Israelite Daily Life. BA 18: 50-79. H.W. yists (ezrda'). See no. 583b. mats (ezrah). See no. 580b.
60 FS (ah) TI, alas! MX (‘ah) Il, II. See no. 66a, 62a. ms ('dah). See no. 65a. 61 “IMS (‘ehad) one, same, single, first, each,
once, fem. ‘ahat (AMS).
This word occurs 960 times as a noun, adjec- tive, or adverb, as a cardinal or ordinal number, often used in a distributive sense. It is closely identified with yahad “to be united” and with ro’sh ‘first, head,’* especially tn connection with the “first day’ of the month (Gen 8:13). It stres- ses unity while recognizing diversity within that oneness.
‘ehad can refer to a certain individual (Jud 13:2) or a single blessing (Gen 27:38). Solomon alone was chosen by the Lord (I Chr 29:1). The notion of uniqueness is also found in II Sam 7:23 and Ezk 33:24 (for this verse with reference to God, see below). The phrase “in a single day” can refer to the suddenness of judgment (Isa 10:17: 47:9) or blessing (Isa 66:8).
Adverbially. ‘ehad means “once” or ‘‘one time’ (If Kgs 6:10). God solemnly swore to David “‘one time’ that his descendants and throne would last forever (Ps 89:35 [H 36]). In Hag 2:6 the Lord warned that he would shake heaven and earth “‘once more in a little while.” Yet this prediction of the overthrow of nations probably included a near as well as a far fulfil- ment (cf. Heb 12:26). The expression ‘in one day’’ denotes the swiftness of the Lord's acts (Isa 9:14 [H 13]: Zech 3:9).
Sometimes the phrase *‘as one man” can mean ‘all at once’ (Num 14:15), but when Gideon was told he would defeat Midian ‘tas one man” it probably meant ‘‘as easily as a single man” (Jud 6:16). The phrase can also refer to a nation aroused to take united action against gross injus- tice (Jud 20:8; I Sam 11:7). Zephaniah’s mention of people serving God ‘with one shoulder’’ (3:9) likely means ‘‘shoulder to shoulder,’ solidly united. Likewise in Ex 24:3 ‘‘with one voice” expresses that all Israel was involved in entering into the Covenant with Yahweh.
The concept of unity is related to the taberna- cle, whose curtains are fastened together to form one unit (Ex 26:6, 11; 36:13). Adam and Eve are described as ‘‘one flesh’* (Gen 2:24), which in- cludes more than sexual unity. In Gen 34:16 the men of Shechem suggest intermarriage with Jacob's children in order to become ‘‘one people.”
30
Later, Ezekiel predicted that the fragmented nation of Israel would someday be reunited, as he symbolically joined two sticks (37:17). Once again Judah and Ephraim would be one nation with one king (37:22). Abraham was viewed as ‘*the one’’ from whom all the people descended (Isa 51:2; Mal 2:15), the one father of the nation.
Diversity within unity is also seen from the fact that ‘ehad has a plural form, ‘ahadim. It is trans- lated *‘a few days” in Gen 27:44; 29:20. and Dan 11:20. In Gen 11:1 the plural modifies ‘**words”™’: ‘the whole earth used the same language and the same words.’ Apparently it refers to the same vocabulary, the same set of words spoken by everyone at the tower of Babel. The first *‘same™ in Gen 11:! is singular, analogous to “the same law’ of the Passover applying to native-born and foreigner (Ex 12:49: cf. Num 15:16), or to the ‘one law’ of sure death for approaching the Per- sian king without invitation (Est 4:11).
In the famous Shema of Deut 6:4, **Hear, O Israel... the Lorp is one,’ the question of diver- sity within unity has theological implications. Some scholars have felt that, though “‘one™ is singular, the usage of the word allows for the doctrine of the Trinity. While it is true that this doctrine is foreshadowed in the ot, the verse concentrates on the fact that there is one God and that Israel owes its exclusive loyalty to him (Deut 5:9; 6:5). The nT also is strictly monotheistic while at the same time teaching diversity within the unity (Jas 2:19; 1 Cor 8:5-6).
[The lexical and syntactical difficulties of Deut 6:4 can be seen in the many translations offered for it in the Niv. The option *‘the LORD ts our God, the LORD alone” has in its favor both the broad context of the book and the immediate con- text. Deuteronomy 6:4 serves as an introduction to motivate Israel to keep the command “‘to love (the Lorp)’* (v. 5). The notion that the Lorp its Israel's only God suits this command admirably (cf. Song 6:8f). Moreover, these two notions, the Lorp’s unique relation to Israel and Israel's obli- gation to love him, are central to the concern of Moses’ addresses in the book (cf. Deut 5:9f.; 7:9; 10:14ff., 20f., 13:6; 30:20; 32:12). Finally Zechariah employs the text with this meaning and applies it universally with reference to the escha- ton: *‘The Lorp will be king over all the earth; in that day the Lorp will be (the only) one, and His name (the only) one’ (14:9 Nass).
In Job 31:15 and Mal 2:10 the word is used to denote that one and the same God created all men. The reference to the one Shepherd in Eccl 12:11 probably indicates that God is the only source of wisdom. B.K.W.]
Bibliography: Knight, A. F., ‘‘The Lord is One,” Exp T 79: 8-10. TDOT, I, pp. 193-200. THAT, I, pp. 104-106.
H.W.
62 sms (hh). Assumed root of the following. 62a tm8 ('Gh) I, brother. 62b MINS (‘ahdwa) brotherhood. 62c TRIMS ('GhOt) _ sister.
ah. Brother, relative, fellow countryman, friend. From a root common to all Semitic languages, ’ah occurs 630 times tn the oT. Owing to its wide range of meanings and the practice of polygamy, it is sometimes necessary to describe a full brother as the son of one’s mother (Deut 13:6 [H 7}; Ps 50:20: Jud 8:19). The relationship between full brothers was extremely close, so the admon- ition to kill a brother who has become an idolater is severe indeed (Deut 13:6 [H 7]). Every man is expected to be his brother's keeper (Gen 4:9). The oT is replete with stories about half-brothers, those with different mothers. Abraham was Sarah's half-brother (Gen 20:5, 12), and his sons Ishmael and Isaac were born to Hagar and Sarah. The rivalry between Joseph and his half-brothers turned into hatred (Gen 37:2-5), and Absalom's hatred for Amnon resulted in murder (II Sam 13:29). Even full brothers like Cain and Abel, or Jacob and Esau had similar experiences. The Le- vites, however, properly put loyalty to God above family solidarity when they killed their own sons and brothers guilty of idolatry (32:29).
More remote descendants from a common father are called brothers. Thus ‘‘brother’” oc- curs together with “children of Israel’* (Deut 24:7). “‘Brother’’ is used more widely of Ab- raham’s nephew Lot (Gen 13:8) and Laban's nephew Jacob (Gen 29:15). Members of the same tribe are also called “brothers,” fellow-Levites (Num 16:10) or Simeonites (Num 25:6). The *‘rel- atives’’ of Samson among whom he should have selected a wife probably refer to his own tnbe of Dan (Jud 14:3).
The meaning also includes all the children of Israel] generally, as the parallelism with ‘‘brothers’’ shows (Lev 25:46: Deut 3:18). This is doubtless the background of the NT usage of ‘brothers’ as fellow believers. Moses’ fellow countrymen slaving in Egypt were called ‘‘his brothers’? (Ex 2:11; 4:18). All were descended from Abraham and Jacob. Israel's prophets (Deut 18:15) and kings (Deut 17:15) must be *‘brothers”’ and not foreigners. Israelites were not to take advantage of the financial distress of other Israel- ites (Lev 25:35; Neh 5:8), who were to be con- sidered as ‘‘friends’’ (‘‘neighbors,’’ réa‘) or ‘brothers’ (Deut 15:2). The word is used as a parallel or synonym with ‘‘neighbor’’ (Lev 19:17; Jer 9:4 {H 3}). In Prov there is reference to a friend who is better than a brother (18:24; 27:10). When David eulogized Jonathan, he called him a ‘brother’ in this deep sense (1J Sam 1:26).
Sometimes various nations claimed *‘brother’’ status. Israel referred to Edom as *'my brother”’
31
62 AMS Chh)
(Num 20:14), partly because Esau and Isaac were sons of Abraham. Several times Edom is con- demned for mistreating brother Israel (Amos 1:11; Ob 10, 12). Hiram, king of Tyre, called Sol- omon ‘‘my brother’ (1 Kgs 9:13), but it is also Tyre which is judged for ignoring a ‘‘treaty of friendship’ (literally, “*brotherhood,’* Amos 1:9).
‘‘Brother’’ is also used by Jacob to address strangers politely (Gen 29:4). The old man of Gibeah calls his perverted neighbors ‘brothers’ (Jud 19:23), when Job’s term would have been more appropriate: ‘I have become a brother to jackals’* (30:29). In the Mari tablets and west semitic inscriptions, the word is used to address persons of equal rank and to refer to professional colleagues as well as kinsmen.
Some authorities have attributed the impor- tance of brothers to a fratriarchal framework. Rule of brothers 1s known in the near east, and Laban’s behavior toward his sister Rebekah may be an example of fratriarchy. Even though their father was still living (Gen 24:50), it was Laban who played the leading role.
Speiser likens the claims of Abraham and Isaac that their wives were ‘‘sisters’’ to a similar cus- tom in Nuzi where a high-born wife was adopted to be also a sister. This gave her higher status and helps to explain the actions of these patriarchs. Unfortunately, the custom was not recognized in Egypt and Gerar. It was evidently derived from an old fratriarchate. For details see E. A. Speiser Oriental and Biblical Studies (Univ. of Pennsyl- vania, 1967, pp. 62-82).
The responsibilities of brothers are also known through the institution of Levirate marriage. If a man died without having a son, his brother was obligated to marry the widow and name her firstborn son after his brother to “‘build up his brother's house’’ (Deut 25:5~10: Gen 38:7-9). It was a serious sin, however, to have sexual rela- tions with a brother's wife while he was still alive (Lev 18:16: 20:21). The oldest son was given a double portion of the inheritance (Deut 21:17). A priest was permitted to defile himself for the death of a sister or brother (Lev 21:2). Apart from these, no other laws involving brothers are men- tioned in oT legal materials.
’ahot. Sister, relative, beloved. Derived from the same root as ‘‘brother’’ and with the same semantic range, it occurs only 114 times. Again, the distinction between full sister and half-sister is not clear (Gen 20:5). Usually to indicate the latter the father is said to be the same (Ezk 22:11).
‘‘Sister’’ can also be used in the sense of ‘‘close relative’’ (Gen 24:60), a woman of the same nationality (Num 25:18), or a close friend (Prov 7:4). The meaning *‘beloved"’ or *‘darling™ is clear in Song 4:9-12 and 5:1-2, where ‘*sister™’
63 M8 (aha)
occurs parallel to ‘‘bride’’ four times. This may stem from an earlier custom, according to which it was permissable to marry one's sister (Gen 20:5f.). In Hurrian society it was also the practice for husbands in the upper classes to adopt their wives as “‘sisters’’ to form the strongest marriage bond. This fratniarchal feature may explain the frequent wife-sister motif of Genesis (see ‘ah ‘*brother’’).
In Lev 18:9, 11 sexual relations with a sister or half-sister are forbidden. Amnon’s rape of his half-sister Tamar, Absalom’s full sister, must be understood in this light (II Sam 13:1f.). Since ‘*sister’’ 1s used in the expression ‘‘one to another’”’ (Ex 26:3), some scholars interpret Lev 18:18 asa condemnation of polygamy. Context strongly argues against this, however.
Israel and Judah are called *‘sisters’’ in Jer 3:7, and Jerusalem is castigated as a sister of Samaria and Sodom (Ezk 16:46).
Bibliography: Gordon, C. H., ‘‘Fratriarchy in the Old Testament,’’ JBL 54: 223-31. Neufeld, Edward, ‘The Prohibition against Loans at Interest in Ancient Hebrew Laws,’’ HUCA 26: 355-412. Riemann, Paul A., **AmI My Brother’s Keeper?”’ Interp 24: 482-91. Speiser, E. A., ‘The Wife-Sister Motif in the Patriarchal Narra- tives,’ in Oriental and Biblical Studies, Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, 1967, pp. 62-82. TDOT, I, pp. 188-92. THAT, I, pp. 98-103. For a different view, cf. Kitchen, K. A., The Bible in its World, Paternoster, 1977, p. 70.
H.W.
63 3MS ('Ghi) reeds, rushes.
See no. 62b. See no. 62c.
mums (Cahdwa). AIAR (ahd).
MS ('Ghaz) to take hold of, seize, grasp.
Derivative 64a IMI
Most of the verb’s sixty-eight occurrences are in the Qal stem, but several Niphal forms are found. Its uses are rather evenly divided between the literal and metaphorical, both positive and negative.
The basic idea of the root is ‘‘to take hold of.*’ Jacob ‘‘took hold’’ of Esau’s heel (Gen 25:26); Samson ‘took hold’’ of the city gate (Jud 16:3); Ruth ‘‘held’’ the cloak as Boaz poured six mea- sures of barley into it (Ruth 3:15), The curtains of Xerxes's palace were held by cords of linen on silver rings (Est 1:6). Men could ‘‘hold’’ or ‘*wear’’ swords (Song 3:8).
Pertaining to architecture, it is used of the floors of the side rooms that were ‘‘attached”’ to the temple by cedar beams (I Kgs 6:10), or of the footstool attached to the throne (II Chr 9:18, the
('Ghazza) possession.
32
only Hophal usage). Once it 1s applied to **bolt- ing’’ the city gates (Neh 7:3).
Sometimes “‘to take hold of” has the violent connotation of *‘seize’’ or “‘catch.’’ The Israel- ites caught Adoni-bezek (Jud 1:6) and Jephthah caught and killed the men of Ephraim unable to pronounce ‘‘Shibboleth’’ (Jud 12:6; II Sam 2:21). A ram is caught in a thicket (Gen 22:13) and a fish in a net (Eccl 9:12). Job says that God has ‘*grasped me by the neck and shaken me to pieces”’ (16:12). :
‘*To take’’ can also refer to selection, as the men taken by lot (I Chr 24:6) or the two percent of the plunder taken as the Levites’ share (Num 31:30, 47).
Metaphorically,, the mghteous man is said to ‘‘hold to his way’’ (Job 17:9). One can “grasp” an idea or ‘‘take hold”’ of folly (Eccl 7:18; 2:3). God in his grace will *‘take hold of my right hand’’ as a sign of his guidance and favor (Ps 73:23; cf. Isa 45:1, hazaq). Psalm 139:10 speaks of God’s right hand leading and ‘‘laying hold”’ of the Psalmist. In Deut 32:41 the Lord sharpens his sword *‘to take hold of justice.”
A common idiom is to be seized by pain, sor- row or fear, often as a woman in childbirth. An- guish grips the enemies of Israel (Ex 15:14-15), but Israel herself suffers labor pains as she faces exile (Jer 13:21). King Saul was seized by the agony of death on the battlefield (II Sam 1:9), and the nations of the world endure pain and anguish as the day of the Lord approaches (Isa 13:8-9).
In the Niphal stem the verb usually means ‘'to acquire property,’ thus overlapping with the noun ‘ahazza ‘‘possession.’’ Sometimes both noun and verb occur in the same verse (Josh 22:9, 19). The Niphal may arrive at this meaning through its reflexive use, ‘‘to take for oneself.”’
The property in view is almost always land. Hamor invited Jacob and his sons to ‘‘acquire property’? in Shechem and Canaan (Gen 34:10). Later, Joseph gave his father and brothers pos- session of the best land of Egypt (Gen 47:11, 27), but only as a temporary residence.
*ahiizza. Possession, property. (KJV and ASV consistently use ‘‘possession’’ but RSV occasion- ally renders ‘‘property.’’) The majority of its sixty-six uses pertain to the possession of land (the verb is so used only in the Niphal). The word is also used in conjunction with ‘‘inheritance’’ (nahala),
Normally the property under discussion was located in the land of Canaan. All of that land had been promised to Abraham as ‘‘an everlasting possession’’ (Gen 17:8), a promise repeated to Jacob (Gen 48:4). Five times in Genesis, Ab- raham’s purchase of the Cave of Machpelah is mentioned (23:4, 9, 20; 49:30; 50:13). By gaining possession of this burial site for Sarah, Abraham
made the down payment on the eventual full pos- session of the land. Canaan is called ‘*the land of the Lorp’s possession” in Josh 22:19, to distin- guish it from Transjordan where the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh chose to settle (22:9),
Within Canaan each family had its individual
property, considered its inheritance. Even if it had to be leased to others, or was consecrated to the Lord, the land always reverted to the original owner in the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:10, 13, 28; 27:24). The daughters of Zelophehad were suc- cessful in their bid to acquire property as an inheritance, since they had no brothers (Num 27:7),
The Levites received no land as a possession,
but they did have cities and their surrounding fields (Lev 25:33). The Lord was the possession of the Levites; he was their inheritance and share (Ezk 44:28; Num 18:20).
It was the Lord who promised to the Messiah,
son of David, that the ends of the earth would be his possession (Ps 2:8).
Once, in Lev 25:45-46, persons are called
property. Israelites were allowed to keep resident aliens as their permanent possession.
Bibliography: Yaron, R., *‘A Document of
Redemption from Ugarit,’’ VT 10: 83-90. THAT,
I, pp. 107-109. H.W. 65 MAN (hh) I. Assumed root of the following. 65a 8 (‘dah) jackal. Occurs only in Isa 13:21. 66 RRN (‘Ah) II. Possible root of the following. 66a MNS ('Gh) III, firepot, brazier. 67 ms (‘h/). Assumed root of the following. 67a osoms (‘ahla) ah that! 67b imp ons (‘ahlama) amethyst, jasper.
68
’ahlama. Amethyst. and 39:12, refers to a stone in the third row on the breastpiece of judgment worn by the high priest. ‘Amethyst’ is a transliteration of the Septuagint word. The identification is not certain. Amethyst is a purple stone, perhaps corundum. KB favors a red or brown jasper.
Found only in Ex 28:19
"m8 ('dhar) tarry, delay, defer. The rsv is similar, Niv ‘“‘remain,’’ ‘‘lose no time.’’ The NIV uses ‘‘delay’’ usually in place of ‘‘tarry.”’
Derivatives
68a TIAN ('ahér) another.
68b “AN (‘ahar) after, behind (of place); after, afterwards (of time); used as an adverb, ‘‘afterwards’’ and also as a conjunction with ‘dshér ‘‘after that.”’ Often used in the plural form ‘ahéré
33
68 IMS ('ahar)
especially with suffixes. A very com-
mon word.
68c “SMS (‘ahdray) afterwards; only in Prov 28:23.
68d tiM8 ('ahér) back part, the rear,
mostly in adverbial phrases, ‘‘back- ward.’’
MIMS Cahoranit) backwards.
NIMs (ahdrén) hindermost, west, be- hind (of place), latter, last, coming after (of time); the feminine ‘ahdrénda is used adverbially.
68g tmysms (ahdrit) after part, end (of
place), latter part, future (of time).
68e 68f
The verb ‘ahar is only used seventeen times mainly in the Piel and is not as significant as its derivatives. It refers to situations of staying be- hind, delaying, waiting (but not waiting in hope like yahal or qawa).
’ahéer. Another. This word is often used in normal situations, ‘‘another place,’’ ‘‘other seven years,’ etc. Of remark is only the frequent phrase in the plural *‘other gods.’’ It is used in the first commandment (Ex 20:3), in the warnings of Deut 13:2 [H 3] ff., of the prophets’ rebukes (Jer 7:6 ff.). It appears sixty-three times according to BDB. Only in Ps 16:4 and Isa 42:8 is it used absolutely. In the difficult verse Ps 16:4, we may perhaps take the word ‘‘sorrows’”’ (‘ass°bétadm) of the first stich from the root ‘asab II (as does the Targum) and read ‘‘their idols.’’ This would make a better balance for ‘‘other [gods]’’ in the parallel.
’ahor. Back part, backwards. This derivative is less used than others (forty-one times). The common meaning is just ‘backward.’ Enemies are turned backward. It is used ethically in Jer 7:24, *‘they went backward and not forward."’ Ezekiel’s scroll was written within and without (i.e. on the back).
Theologically, the only instance that calls for discussion is Ex 33:23, *‘thou shalt see my back, but my face shall not be seen” (kK)v, most ver- sions the same). But in no other place is the word used for the back of a person’s anatomy. This is gab or gaw or ‘orep. The word ‘'ahdér means ‘*back’’ in the sense of direction. Joab saw the battle before and behind him (II Chr 13:14). Ezekiel saw the apostate twenty-five leaders fac- ing the east with their backs toward the temple, i.e. it was behind them (Ezk 8:16). Is it not there- fore probable that in the theophany of Ex 33:23 the emphasis is not on an extreme an- thropomorphism saying that Moses could see God’s back but not his face? Rather, it was meant that Moses could see the glory and afterglow be- hind the Lord as he passed by, but his very pres- ence could not be seen. Of course the an- thropomorphism is possible and not even objec-
69 BIB swas ( dhashdarp*nim)
tionable, but a semi-physical distinction between face and back is apparently not the strict meaning of the words.
’ahdrit. After part, latter part, future. Used sixty-one times, this word is also not as common as some other derivatives, but has theological import. As is clear from other derivatives, the general meaning of the root is after, later, behind, following. H. W. Wolff has likened the Hebrew conception of time to the view a man has when he is rowing a boat. He sees where he has been and backs into the future (lecture notes). It is true that qedem means ‘‘before’’ as well as ‘‘ancient times.’’ So the root ’ahar refers to what is ‘‘be- hind’’ as well as to ‘‘future things.’’ It might be observed that this is not necessarily due to the psychology of the Hebrews, for the usage was doubtless established in Canaanite before the Hebrews arrived. But ‘ahdrit does refer to the future.
There are two theological questions at issue. First, does ’ahdrit hayyamim (the end of the days) refer to the general future, or more specifi- cally to the last days, the final segment of time? The writer has argued elsewhere that it usually refers just to the general future (*“‘The Last Days in the Bible and Qumran,”* in Jesus of Nazareth, Savior and Lord, ed. C. F. H. Henry, Eerdmans, 1966, pp. 74-79). The second question is, does ‘ahdrit alone sometimes refer to the future life?
As to the first point, the expression ‘aharit hayyamim is used fourteen times (Gen 49:1; Num 24:14; Deut 4:30; 31:29; Isa 2:2 = Mic 4:1; Jer 23:20; 30:24; 48:47; 49:39: Ezk 38:16; Dan 2:28 [Aram.] and 10:14; Hos 3:5). The ksv translates the Gen, Isa and Mic references with ‘“‘last days,”’ the rest with ‘‘latter days.’’ The rsv uses ‘latter days’ except for Gen and Deut 31:29 where it has “‘days to come.”’ The Nass uses “‘lat- ter days’’ seven times, “‘last days’’ six times and ‘days to come’ in Gen and Num. The niv uses ‘later days” in Deut 4:30; “‘last days’’ in Isa, Mic and Hos, ‘‘the future”’ in Dan 10:14 and ‘‘days to come’’ in the other passages.
It can be seen that none of these translations use the phrase as an invariable technical term for the final segment of time. The interpretation de- pends on the context. It is possible to use this phrase both for the eschaton and for the general future because obviously all eschatology is fu- ture, but not all future is eschatology. It does seem clear that Isa 2:2ff. (=Mic 4:1 ff.) refers to the eschaton (‘‘last days’’ KJv, NASB, NIV), but that the reviving of Moab and Edom are simply prophesied for some future day (Jer 48:47; 49:39. cf. the Ammonites, 44:6). The above-cited article suggests that the corresponding NT phrase also often refers to the general future, not to the final segment of time. This brings into question the
idea that the nT church thought of itself as living in the ‘‘last days.’ The ‘‘perilous times’’ spoken of in I Tim 4:1 may just be a serious warning for the indefinite future (cf. Mt 24:6).
On the second question, does ‘ahdrit alone ever refer to the future life, M. Dahood has claimed that it sometimes clearly does (Proverbs and Northwest Semitic Philology, Pontifical Bi- blical Institute, 1963, pp. 48-49, 51). There are several interrelated verses in Prov using our word. Proverbs 24:14 (parallel to 23:18) says there is an ‘ahdrit (NIv ‘‘future hope’’) for the righteous. His hope (tigwd) will not be cut off. Proverbs 11:7 says that when a wicked man dies, his hope (tigwd) perishes. For the righteous, Prov 12:28 promises life and immortality (‘al mawet, **no death’’, Dahood, op. cit. p. 28). But the evil man has no future hope (’ahdrit) and the lamp of the wicked will be snuffed out (Prov 24:20, NIv). Dahood holds that Prov 20:20 refers to the afterlife: his lamp will be snuffed out in the sleep of darkness (i.e. death). There is thus an interlocking of the words 'ahdrit in the sense of a blessed future after death, tigwd ‘‘hope’’ beyond death, and for the righteous ‘al mawet ‘‘no death.’’ Dahood points out that the same colloca- tion (except for tigwd) occurs in Ugaritic, II Aghat VI 11. 26-36 which H. L. Ginsberg trans- lates, ‘*Ask for life O Aqhat, the Youth, ask for life (hym) and I'll give it thee, for deathlessness (bl mt = Heb. ’al mawet), and I'll bestow it on thee. I’ll make thee count years with Baal.... But Aghat, the Youth answers.... Further life (‘uhryt = Heb. ’ahdrit)}—how can mortal attain it? How can mortal man attain life enduring?”’ Certainly the collocation of verses in Prov along with the similar usage of the key words in Ugar- itic seems to warrant Dahood's conclusion that the ‘‘affirmation of a future life... seems ines- capable.”’
Bibliography: THAT, I, pp. 110-17.
R.L.H.
69 opsswes (dhashdarp’ nim) — sairaps.
70 JSAWHS (Cdhasht’ran) royal. Occurs only
in Est 8:10-14. os (‘at). See no. 72b.
71 “8 (td). Assumed root of the following. 7la “WS (atad) bramble, buckthorn. WS ('étun). See no. 73b.
72 wes (rr). Assumed root of the following. 72a TOS (itti) charmer (K)V, ASV, NAB);
34
sorcerer (RSV. Amplified): magician (Berkeley): wizard (JB); oraclemonger (NEB) (Ex 8:7 [H 3}. 18 [H 14] and I Sam 24:4 [H 5)).
73
74
75
*itti. Charmer. This word, describing some variety of occultist, appears only in Isa 19:3 where it is plural (‘ittim). Because of the context, a list including idols, mediums, and wizards, its meaning can be easily guessed. Furthermore, the adverb ‘at is formed of the same radicals mean- ing “slowly,” “‘softly.”” ““gently,”* or “‘secretly”’ (cf. Gen 33:14: IJ Sam 18:5; I Kgs 21:27; Job 15:11: Isa 8:6). There is an Arabic cognate which Means “‘to emit a moaning or creaking sound.” Isaiah 8:19 and 29:4 indicate that these various kinds of witches and wizards made low, chirping or muttering sounds. Although ‘itt? does not ap- pear in either passage, the general representation of necromancy in the Bible furnishes a satisfac- tory background to the understanding of ‘iti along these lines.
The Hebrew words /d’at, la’t, and /dt may also shed light. The first is a verb probably derived as a by-form from /ut that occurs as a term for ‘cover’ or ‘cover over’ in II Sam 19:5. The second is perhaps an adverb appearing in Jud 4:21 only and meaning “‘softly’’ or ‘‘secretly.”’ The kJv translates the third /at as ‘‘with enchantments’’ in Ex 7:22: 8:3, 14, and as ‘softly, “*secretly,’’ and “‘privily”’ in Ruth 3:7: I Sam 18:22 and 24:5, respectively.
R.L.A. %ON (‘irti). See no. 72a. BON ('atam) shut, shut up. Derivative 73b TBS (étun) thread, yarn. Occurs only in Prov 7:16. "es (‘atar) shut up, close. Occurs only in Ps 69:16. Derivative 74a SON (ittér) shut, bound. This ad- jective occurs only in Jud 3:15; 20:16. % (av) where. Derivatives TSa oo 8) Cayyéh) where? 75b TS (ek) how? 75c TADS (eka) how? where? 75d T3D98 ('CkO) where? 7TS5e mas ('ekaka) how? 75f T8 (Cavin) where? 75g TIS ('dn) where? 75h tRESS ('Epoh) where?
The interrogative adverb ‘ay is related to the Ugaritic ‘v. Most of its thirty occurrences are in rhetorical questions. It combines with other ad- verbs to form ‘ék “*how’™’; ‘ékd *“*how, where”;
35
75 98 Cay)
'"ékakad “‘how’’; ’épdh *‘where.’’ The word ‘ayvéh is probably a lengthened form of ‘ay. The meaning and usage are almost identical. Parallel passages interchange ‘ay and ‘ayyéh (Isa 36:19 = II Kgs 19:13).
The interrogative adverb is sometimes used in requesting information (Gen 18:9; 22:7; I Sam 9:18), but more often no answer is expected. This is particularly true of poetic passages. If God is on your side, where is the fury of the oppressor (Isa 51:13) or. in Job 14:10, after man expires, where is he?
Frequently ‘‘where”™’ is used by men question- ing the existence and power of God. Individuals (Mic 7:10) as well as nations ask, **Where is your God?” (Ps 79:10: 115:2), or where is the word of God (Jer 17:15) or the God of justice? (Mal 2:17). Gideon, doubting, asked what happened to the miracles he had heard about (Jud 6:13). The same earnest longing characterizes the plea for God's action in Isa 63:11.
The Lord employed sarcasm to ask Judah where were her gods, when that idol-loving na- tion met distress (Deut 32:37; Jer 2:28). ‘ay, strengthened by the enclitic zeh, is used as the Lord asks where there is a house that could pos- sibly contain him (Isa 66:1).
The strengthened interrogative also occurs in Est 7:5. The king asked where the queen's tor- mentor might be found. Rhetorical questions with zeh are illustrated by II Chr 18:23 and Job 38:19.
Combined with mizzeh, ‘ay (or ‘é) means ‘‘where have you come from?”’ This construction is used by human beings (I Sam 30:13), angels (Gen 16:8), and even by God in addressing Satan (Job 2:2).
’ék. How. This interrogative pronoun is used in simple questions, e.g. Jehoiakim’s official asks Baruch, **How did you write these words?” (Jer 36:17). But usually it is used in rhetorical questions to indicate reproach (‘‘how dare you say I love you, Jud 16:15), despair (“how the mighty have fallen,’ I Sam 1:19), amazement (“‘how the op- pressor has ceased,” Isa 14:4), horror (“how they are destroyed in a moment,” Ps 73:19), or desire (‘“thow I would set you among my sons,” Jer 3:19).
"eka. How, where. A more emphatic form of 'ék, applied to reasoning (Jer 8:8), mocking (Ps 73:11), and exclamations (Jer 48:17). Laments in particular are stressed (Isa 1:21; Lam 1:1; 2:1; 4:1-2). The meaning **where”’ is also attested (II Kgs 6:13; Song 1:7).
’ékO. Where. Found only in II Kgs 6:13, where the written text has ‘ékoh. This 1s prob- ably another example of ‘éAd *‘where.”’
*ekaka. How. Formed ’é plus kaka, ‘‘thus,”’ it occurs twice 1n Song 5:3 inthe sense of *‘must I.”’
76 8 C7
76
77
78
In Est 8:6 the queen wonders how she can bear to see the destruction of the Jews.
’ayin. Where. Probably derived from ‘ay. This adverb is always combined with min in mé’ayin. It is a synonym of ’é mizzeh (see under ay). Often travelers were asked, ‘‘Where have you come from?’ (Gen 29:4; Jud 19:17), as God asked Satan in Job 1:7. It occurs in rhetorical questions expressing frustration (Num 11:13; II Kgs 6:27) or distress (Jer 30:7). According to Ps 121:1-2, one’s help comes from the Lord. In this famous verse, the original Kjv read, “I will lift up mine eyes unto the hilles: from whence commeth my helpe.’’ The ‘‘from whence’’ was interpreted by some as a relative pronoun, indicating that the help was thought of as coming via the hills. But it seems more likely that the Hebrew is a question, and the answer is in v. 2—that is, in the Lord himself.
‘ayin may be contrasted to the form ’dn, which is not combined with min,
’an. Where. Contracted from ‘ayin, it often occurs with the locative with verbs of motion to ask, ‘‘where to’ in questions directed to man (Gen 32:17 [H 18]) or God (II Sam 2:1). The com- pound ‘ad ‘dnd “how long,’ is used by God, complaining about Israel’s prolonged lack of faith or obedience (Ex 16:28; Num 14:11). Men also ask God how long it will be before he responds (Hab 1:2; Ps 13:1-2 [H 2-3]).
’épd. Where, what kind. Infrequently used (nine times), it is compared with ‘ay or ‘ayyé. Once it means ‘‘what kind of men’’ (Jud 8:18). It is a combination of ‘ay (q.v.) and pdh (q.v.).
Bibliography: Muir, J., **The Significance of 18 in Genesis 5,24 and Psalm 39,13,’ Exp T S0: 476-77. THAT, 1, pp. 125-26.
H.W.
8 (fT) IH, alas! Occurs only in Eccl 4:10; 10:16.
‘ss (7) IV, not. This adverb is used only once (Job 22:30). It is probably to be iden- tified in the name ‘7 kdbdd *‘No Glory.”
‘Xs (7) +I, 1D. See nos. 39a, 43a.
3°68 (‘Gyab) tobeanenemy. (ASV, RSV trans-
late similarly). Derivatives
78a iS°s ('6bad) enmity, hatred.
78b t3iN (iydb) Job.
The basic meaning of